y, "" 



TINMAN'S MANU 



ANB 



BUILDER'S 




AND 



MECHANIC'S HANDBOOK, 



DESIGNED FOB 

TJnxnen, Japanners, Coppersmiths, Engineers, Mechanics, Builders, Mill- 
wrights, Smiths, Masons, Carpenters, Joiners, Slaters, Plasterers, 
Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, Plumbers, Surveyors, G-augers, &e., &e.; witb 
Compositions and Receipts for other useful and important purposes in 
the Practical Arts. 



,<r,. ■. ^ 



J 



/)}^_ '^ By I. R. BUTTS, 



ABtborof the " United Stales Business Man's Law Cabinet," '* Business Maa'i 

Law Library 3'- '' Merchant's and Shipmaster's Manual and Siiipbuild- 

er's and Sailmakers Assistant," &c., &c. 



KirslTH EDITION 



BOSTON 

CUPPLES AND HUED 
C^e aigonqum H^xzm 



Copyright, i860. 
By I. R. BUTTS. 



Copyright, 1888, 
By CUPPLES & HURD. 



A II rights reserved. 



^ 



^ 
^ 



% 



PREFACE. 



The present work is offered to Tinmen, Builders, Mechanics, and 
Engineers, as a useful manual of reference, and information. 

The first part of the work containing Rules, Diagrams and Tables, 
will be found very usefal to Tinmen. 

Mr. Truesdell who has, for many years, used the Diagrams pre. 
pared by him for this work, now offers them to the public with every 
confidence. 

7^e Receipts for Japans, Varnishes, Cements, S^c, were taken 
from ** Ure's Dictionary," ** Cooley's Cyclopedia,*' " Muspratt's 
Chemistry," and other publications. 

The sources from which most of the materials relating to Geometry, 
Mechanics, and Engineering have been derived, are ** Grier'i 
Mechanic's Calculator," ** Templeton's Workshop Companion," 
•• The Engineer's and Contractor's Pocket-book," ** Adcock's En- 
gineer," "Smeaton's Builder's Companion," and "Lowndes' 
Engineer's Handbook." 



LETTER FROM L. W. TRUESDELL. 
Mr. Butts, — 

Dear Sir, — If I may be permitted to comment upon 
the first part of your book, I would like to point out to Tinmen the 
Yalue of the Diagrams which, a few years ago, could not have been 
purchased at any price ; but as they are now to be published, and 
Bold at a low price, I am confident they will be bought by every Tin- 



4 PttEfACfi. 

man, for I know, by experience, the perplexities to wMcH they af^ 
often subjected from the want of them. 

With these Directions and Diagrams, the Tinman will be enabled 
to cut a Right-Angled or Circular Elbow of any size, in a few min- 
utes, and produce as perfect a mitre joint as can be made ; also, 
patterns for Flaring vessels, of any size or flare, Envelopes for Cones, 
Pyramid Cakes, Covers for Oval Dishes and Boilers, Funnel-shaped 
Covers for Pails, Breasts for Cans, Lips for Measures of any size, &c.* 

When about to make a copy from these diagrams the person should 
provide himself with a sheet of paper or tin-plate, and strictly follow 
the directions given. 

Suppose, for example, that he is about to copy Fig. 1, the directions 
are, ^rs^, from the centre C describe a circle AB. Having described 
the circle AB, next, place the corner of the square on the centre C, and 
draw the lines CD and CE ; then draw the chord DE. 

When the Tinman has become familiar with the diagrams, he will 
find them simple and convenient, and be better qualified to undertake 
work of a difficult character. If an Elbow at right-angles, of ten or 
fifteen inches diameter, should be required, with the directions and 
diagrams before him, he could cut it out in a few minutes ; and so 
with a curved elbow of any diameter, a semicircle, or an ellipses- 
shaped dish of any size. But without a rule or pattern it would be 
a difficult and troublesome undertaking. 

Having by experience proved the correctmess and usefulness of 
these Diagrams, I can confidently recommend them to all persons 
engaged in the manufacture of Tin Ware. 

L. W. TRUESDELL. 
OwEQO, N. Y. Sept. 23, 1860. 



EXTRACT OF A LETTER FROM A TINMAN. 

Mr, Butts,— 

Dear Sir, — ** Your * Tinmcin^s Manual* strikes 
me as being nearer what we want in our business, than anything I 
have ever seen, — and I have examined every thing of the kind I have 
been able to find. The best we have been able to do has been to pick 
up what ideas we could from works on Geometry and Building, and 
work out what rules we could from them. I have often wondered 
why some person did not undertake just what you have done. This 
work of yours supplies just the want that every thinking man who - 
works at the business has felt, even from his first start ; and the want 
is still more sensibly felt as he grows older, and finds how much there 
U to learn.'* 



• la Tinman's Diagrams the allowance for locks is always omiUod. 



CONTENTS. 



RULES AND DIAGRAMS FOR WORKERS IN TIN, SHEET 
IRON AND COPPER. 



Page. 

Manufacture of Tin Plate V2 

Quality of Tin Plate 14 

CIRCLES. 

To find ihe Circumference of any 
Diameter 15 

To find the Area of a Sector of a 
Circle 15 

Proportion of Circles to enable ma- 
chinists to enlarge or reduce 
wheels without changing their 
motion 16 

The Circle and its Sections 27 

To find the centre of a Circle from 
a part of the Circumference 33 

DiamtMers, Circumferences, and 
Areas ol Circles 41 

CYLINDERS. 

To find the Contents in Gallons of 
any Cylindrical Vessel 38 

Tahies giving the Content in Gal- 
lons of Cylinders from 1 inch to 
30 feet Diameter 42 

Ta!)le giving the Content in Gal- 
lons of Cans from 3 inches to 40 
inches Diameter. 45 

BEVEL COVERS. 

To describe Bevel Covers for Ves- 
sels, or Breasts for Cans 25 

To describe Bevel Covers for Ves- 
sels, or Breasls for Cans, {another 
mode) 32 

To describe Covers for Pails 25 

ELLIPSES OR OVALS. 

To describe an Ellipse 17 

Definiiion of an Oval, — note 17 

To describe an Ellipse [another 

mor/e) IS 

To find the Circumference of an 

Ellipse 19 

To find the Area of an Ellipse 19 

To df'scribe an Oval Boiler Cover 26 
To draw nn Ellipse, the transverse 

and conjugate Diameters being 

given, 1. e. the length and widih 116 
To draw an Ellipse by means of 

two concentric circles 1X7 

' \ I* . ' 



Page. 
ELBOWS. 

To describe a Right Angled Elbow 20 
To describe a Straight Elbow (old 

method) 21 

To describe a Curved Elbow 22 

To describe a Straight Elbow 

{another mode). ,. 24 

FL.1RIXG VESSELS. 

To describe a Flaring Vessel Pat- 
tern, a Set of Patterns for a Py- 
ramid Cake, or an Envelope for 

a Cone 28 

To describe a Cone or Frustum., . 29 
To strike the Side of a Flaring 

Vessel 31 

To construct the Frustum of a Cone 34 
To strike out a Cone or Frustum. . 35 
To find the content of a Cone . . 3S 
To find the Angles of a Frustum of 
an inveried Pyramid, such as a 

Mill Hopper, &c 36 

To find the content of the Frustum 
of a Cone, such as a Coftee-pot, 
Bowl, &c 36 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

To joint Lead Plates 23 

Soldering for Lead, Zinc, Tin, and 

Pewter 23 

To joint Lead Pipes, 24 

Soldering for Copper 160 

To describe a Lip to a Measure. . 27 

To describe a Cycloid, or Curve. . 30 

To describe a Heart 30 

Tinning Iron 31 

A good Solder '.2 

Sector, for obtaining Angles 34 

Sector, definition of. 34 

Rule to find the Conlent in Gallons 

ofFrusinms of Cones 37 

Rule to find the Content in Gallons 

of any Cylindrical Vessel 38 

Table to ascertain the weight of 
Pipes of various metals, and any 

Diameter required 38 

Table of Tin Plates, size and 

weight per box 39 

Table of Cans, quantity and qual- 
ity of Tin required l"or 2^ to 125 

gallons.,...^ , , ... 30 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Weight of a cylindrical and cubic 
incli, cubic foot and gallon of 
Water 40 

Decimal Equivalents to the frac- 
tional pans of a Gallon or an Inch 40 

Tables containing the Diameiers, 
I'ircumferences and Areas of 
Circles 42 

Tables giving the Diameters and 
Circumferences of Circles 171 

Tables to ascertain the weight of 
Lead Pipes 139 

Capacit}' of Can< in Gallons from 
3 inches to 40 incites m Diameter 45 

New Tinning Process 46 



Pift. 

Crystallizing Tin Plate, how per- 
formed 46 

Tinnii.g Vessels of Brass or Copper 46 

Kustiiien's Metal for Tinning 46 

Instruments used in Drawing. .. . 101 
Composition of Britannia Metal for 

Spouts, Registers, Spoons, &c.. 91 
Composition of Britannia Metal for 

Lamps, Pillars, Handles, and 

Castings 92 

Solder for Britannia Ware 91 

Lacker for Tni Plate 73 & 94 

Solder, Tinman's 96 

Definitions of Arithmetical Signs 

used in this work 110 



RECEIPTS EOR THE USE OF JAPANNERS, VARNISHERS, 
BUILDERS, MECHANICS, &c. 



JAPANNING AND VABNISHING. 

Directions for Japanning 49 

VVhi'e Japan Grounds — Gum Copal 50 

Black Grounds — Black Japan 51 

Brunswick Black— Blue Japan 
Grounds — Scarlet Japan — Yel- 
low Grounds — Green Japan 

Grounds 52 

Orange Colored Grounds — Purple 
Japan Grounds — Black Japan- 
Japan Black for Leather — Trans- 
parent Japan — Japanners' Copal 

Varnish 53 

Tortoise Shell Japan — Painting 
Japan Work — Japanning Old 
Tea-trajs— Japan Finishing. ... 54 

VARNISHES — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Substances employed for making 

Varnishes 55 

Choice of Linseed Oil 56 

CHIEF BESINS EMPLOYED IN 
MAKING VARNISH. 

Amber — AnJme — Benzoin — Colo- 
phony — Copal 56 

Dammara- -Elimi — Lac — Mastic — 
Sandararh 57 

Turpentine — Alcohol — Naphtha 
and Methylated Spirit of Wine — 
Spirit Vari!i<hes 58 

Essence Varnishes— Oil Variiis^hes 
— Lacker 59 

VARNISHES. 

Copal Varnishes {six kinds) 60 

Copal Varnishes {thne hinds Cab- 
inet Varni-h -Table Varni>h— 
Common Table Varnish — Copal 

Varnish for Inside Work 61 

Copal Polish— White Spirit Var- 
nish—White Hard S|>irii Var- 
nishes— While Varnish , Q2 



Soft Brilliant Varnish 62 

Brown Hard Spirit Varnishes — To 
prepare a Varnish for Coating 
Metals — Varnish for Iron and 
Steel for Iron Work, Black for 
Iron Work, Bronze for Statuary 63 

Amber Varnishes, Black, PaJe, 
Hard — Black Varnish 64 

Varnish for certain parts of Car- 
riages, Coaches, Mahogany, for 
Cabinet Makers— Cemeiri Var- 
nish for water-tight Luting — The 
Varnish of Watin for Gil(|£d Ar- 
ticles — Oak Varnish — Varnish 
for Wood-work — Dark Varnish 
for light Wood-work 65 

Varnish for Instruments, for Wood 
Toys of Spa, for Furniture— To 
French Polish 66 

Furniture Polishes, Gloss, Cream, 
Oils, Pastes— Etching Varnishes 67 

Varnish for Engravings, Maps, to 
fix Engravings or Lithographs on 
Wood, for Oil Paintings and 
Lithographs, for Paintings and 
Pictures— Milk of Wax 63 

Crystal Varni-hes, Italian— Water 
Varnish for Oil Paintings — Var- 
nish for Pai>er hangings. Book- 
binders, Card work 69 

Varnish for Printers — for Brick 
walls— Mastic Varnishes— India 
Rubber Varnishes. 70 

Black Varnish for Harness — Boil- 
ed Oil or Linseed Oil Varnish- 
Dammar Varnish 71 

Common Varnish — Waterproof 
Varnishes — Varnishes for Bal- 
loons, Gas Bags, &c.— Gold Var- 
nish — AVainscol Varnish for 
House Painting and Japanning 72 

LACKERS. 
Gold Lacker— Red Spirit Lacker- 
Pale Bra§s Lacker— Lsicl^er for 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Tin — Lacker Varnish — Deep 
Gold Colored Lacker— Lackers 
for Pictures, Meial, Wood, or 
Leaiher 73 

CEMENTS. 

Armenian, or Diamond Cement.. 74 
Cemenis for mending Glass Ware 74 
Cement for Slone-ware— Iron-Rust 
Cement — for making- Architectu- 
ral Ornaments — Varley's Alasiic 
— Eleciricul and Chemical Appa- 
ratus Cement 75 

Cements for Iron Tubes, Boilers, 
Ivory, Mother of Pearl, Holes in 
Castings, Coppersmiihs and En- 
gineers, Pluml)ers, Bottle corks, 

China and Leather 76 

Cements for Marble, Marble- work- 
ers. Coppersmiths, Glass, mend- 
ing Iron Pots and Pans, Cisterns 

and Casks 77 

Cements for mending Fractured 
Bodies of all kinds, for Cracks in 
AVood, joining Metals and Wood, 
for fas!ening Bras-s to Glass Ves- 
sels, Blades, and Files— Gas-Fit- 
ler's Cement— Cement Paint. ... 78 

builders' cements. 

Cements for Terraces, Roofs, Re- 
servoirs, Fronts of Houses, &c.. . 79 

Cemems for Brick Walls, Seams, 
and Tile roofs 60 

Coarse Stuff. 80 

Pa'ker's Cement— Hamelein's Ce- 
ment— Plaster in imitation of 
Marble— Scagliola 81 

Maliha, or Greek Mastic — Fine 
Si uff— Stucco for Inside \Valls 62 

Higgins's Stucco — Gauge Stuff- 



Page. 

Composition ~ Foundations of 

Buildmg^ 63 

Concrete Floors — Fiie-proof Com- 
position 84 

RECEIPTS. 

To Polish Wainscot and Mahoga- 
any— Imitation of Mahogany — 
Furniture Varnish — To make 
Glass and Stone Paper 89 

Whitewash — Paint for Coating 
Wire Work — To Bleach Sponge 
—Lac Varnish for Vines— Razor 
Paste — Leaiher Varnish — To 
keep Tires Tight on Wheels 86 

To Cut Glass — Prepared Liquid 
Glue — Marine Glue — Paste fir 
Envelopes— Dextiine, or Briiish 
Gum— Gum Mucilage 87 

Flour Paste — Sealing Wax for 
Fruit Cans — Fusible Meial— Me- 
tallic Cement 88 

Artificial Gold— Or-niulo — Blanch- 
ed Copper — Browning Gun Bar- 
rels — Silvering Powder lor Coal- 
ing Copper 89 

Alloys for Journal Boxes — Bells 
of Clocks— Tools— Cymbals and 
Gongs — Solder for Steel Joints — 
Files— To prevent Tools fiom 
Ru.'iting — Axle- Grease— to Gal- 
vanize—Soft Gold Solder 90 

RECEIPTS AND COMPOSITIONS. 

Nearly 200 Compositions for Me- 
chanists, Iron and Brass Found- 
ers, Turners, Tinmen. Copper- 
smiths, Dentists, Finishers of 
Brass, German Silver, Britan- 
nia, and other useful purposes in 
the Practical Arts 91 



Instruments used in Drawing. . 
The Sector 



MECHANICAL DRAWING. 

Mechanical Drawing and Perspec- 



101 I 
103 



105 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Definition of Arithinetical Signs.. 110 
PROBLEMS. 

To find the Circumference of a Di- 
ameter 15 

To find the area of a Sector 15 

To find the Proporiion of Circles 
by which to enlarge or reduce 
Wheels without changing their 
motion IC 

To find the various and proper Di- 
mensions of Materials whereby 
to construct Hipped Roofs, &c... 36 



To find the Centre of a Circle from 
a part of the Circumference 33 

The Circle and its Sections 27 

Sector, for obtaining Angles 34 

To inscribe an Equilateial Trian- 
gle within a given Circle Ill 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a 
Square 112 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a 
regular Pentagon 112 

Wiihin a given Circle to describe 
a regular Hexagon 113 

To cutoff the Corners of a given 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Square, so as to form a regular 
Octagon • 113 

To divide a given Line into any 
Number of Parts, which Parts 
shall be in the same Proportion 
to each other as the Parts of 
some other given line, whether 
those parts are equal or unequal 114 

On a given Line to draw a Poly- 
gon of any Number of Sides, so 
that that Line shall be one side 
of a Polygon , 114 

OF DRAWING CURVED LINES. 

To draw an Ellipse with the Rule 
and Compasses, the transverse 
and conjugate Diameters being 
given ; i. e. the length and width 116 

To draw an Ellipse by means of 



Page. 
two Concentric Circles. ...-..,. 116 

To draw an Ellipse of any length 
and widih • 18 

To find the Circumference & Area 
of an Ellipse 19 

Other methods for describing an 
Ellipse 117 

To find the Centre and the two 
Axes of an Ellipse 118 

To draw a flat Arch by the inter- 
section of Lines, having the 
Opening and Spring or Rise 
given 119 

To find the Form or Curvature of 
a raking Moulding that shall 
unite correctly with a level one 119 

To find the Form or Curvature of 
the Return in an open or broken 
Pediment *. 120 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



Ofihe Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, 

Zone, &c 12-2 

Of the Square, Rectangle, Cube 123 
Surfaces and solidities of Bodies 124 

Of Triangle-:, Polygons, &c 124 

Of Ellipses, Cones, Frustums, &c. 125 

INS-TRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

Utility of the Slide Rule • 125 

Numeration 126 



To Multiply Numbers by the Rule 126 
To divide Numbers upon the Rule 126 
Proportion or Rule of Three Direct 127 
Square & Cube Roots of Numbers 127 

Rule of Three Inverse 127 

Mensuration of Surface 128 

Mensuration of Solidity and Ca- 
pacity 129 

Power of Steam Engines 1-^0 

Of Engine Boilers 130 



RULES AND TABLES FOR ARTIFICERS AND ENGINEERS. 



Measurement of Bricklayer's work 132 
Table to find the number of Bricks 

in any given Wall 133 

Measurement of Wells & Cisterns 133 
Measurement of Mason's Work.. 133 
Measurement of Carpenter's and 

Joiner's Work 134 

Table of different sized Nails to a lb 135 
Table of different sized Sashes, &.c 136 
Measurement of Slater's Work.. . 136 

Table of American Slates 136 

Table of Imported Slates 137 

Measurement of Plasterers Work 137 
Measurement of Paver's Work. . . . 137 
Measurement of Painters Work... 137 
Measurement of Glazier's Work. . 138 
Table of Size and Number of 

Lights to the 100 Square Feet.. . 138 
Measurement of Plumber's Work 138 
Table of Sizes and AVeight of Pa- 
tent Lead Pipe 139 

Table of Boston Lead Pipe 139 

Table of Comparative Strength and 
Weight of Ropes and Chains .. . 139 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Definiiions 140 

Table of Tenacilies, Resistance to 



Compression, &c., of various 
Bodies 140 

Resistance to Lateral Pressure. . . 140 

Table of Practical Data 141 

To find the dimensions of a beam 
of Timber to sustain a given 

Weight .. 141 

To determine the absolute streni^th 
of a Rectangular Beam of Tim- 
ber ..... 141 

To determine the dimensions at a 
Beam with a given degree of de- 
flection 142 

Cast-iron Beams of strongest sec- 
tion 342 

Of Wooden Beams, Trussed 142 

Absolute Strena;ih of Cast-iron 
Beams 142 

Dimensions for Cast-iron Beams. . 143 
To find the Weight of a Cast-iron 

Beam- 143 

Resistance to flexure by vertical 

pressure 143 

To determine the dimensions for a 

Column of Timber 144 

Resistance of Bodies to Twisting 144 
Relative strength of Metals to re- 
sist Torsion 144 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Breaking strength of a Bar of 
Wiought Iron 145 

Lateral strength of Wrought Iron 
as compared with Cast-iron 145 

Load on Bridges, Floors, Roofs, 
and Beams 145 

Strength of Beams, Bar of Wood, 
Stone, Metal, Ropes, Tubes, or 
H-.llow Cylinders 146 

Models proportioned to Machines 146 

Meials arranged according lo their 
Strength 147 

Woods arranged according to do. 147 

Strength of Cords, &c 147 

Strength of Rectangular and Round 
Timber 148 

Tal)le of the Cohesive Power of 
Bars of Metal 148 

Rebitive Strength of Cast and Mal- 
leable Iron 148 

STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 

Solid^ Rectangular^ Round, Hollow 149 
To find the breaking AVeighi m lbs. 149 
To find the proper Size for any giv- 
en purpose 150 

Strength of Cast-iron with Feath- 
ers or Flanges 150 

Wrought Iron Beams and Girders 151 

Hollow Girders 152 

To find the Strength of a Round 

Girder 152 

To find the Strength of any Beam 152 

SOLID COLUMNS. 

To find the Strength of any Wro'l 
Iron Column with Square ends 153 

To find the Strength of Round Col- 
umns exceeding 25 diameters in 
Length 154 

Tables ot Powers for the Diame- 
ters and Lengths of Columns. . . 154 

HOLLOW COLUMNS. 

Square Columns of Plate Iron riv- 
etted 155 

To find the Strength of any Hol- 
low Wrought Iron Column .... 155 

Round Columns of Plate Iron .... 156 

CRANE. 
To find the Strain on the Post 156 

COLD WATER PUMP. 

To find tne proper ^?ize, under any 
circumstances, capable of sup- 
plying twice the quantity ordina- 
rily used in injection 156 

FANS. 

Velocity of Fans 157 

The best Velocity of Circumfer- 
ence for different Densities. . . . 157 



FagBh 

To find the Horse Power required 
for any Fan 157 

To find the Density to be attained 
with any given Fan 157 

To find the Quantity of Air that 
will be delivered by any Fan, 
the Density being known 159 

FRICTION. 
From Mr. Rennie-s Experiments.. 156 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 
In terms of Weight 158 

PEDESTAL AND BRACKET. 

Thickness of cover, diameter, dis- 
tance, solid metal, &c 159 

TEMPERING. 

For Lancets, Razors, Penknives, 
Scissors. Hatchets, Saws, Chis- 
els, Springs, &c 159 

CASE HARDENING 

Articles, how Case Hardened 159 

To Case Harden Cast Iron 160 

HEAT. 

Effects of Heat on Metals, &c., at 
certain Temperatures 160 

SOLDERING. 
For Joints, Copper, Iron and Brass 160 

BORING. 

The best speed for boring Iron, 
drilling, and turning 161 

BRASS. 

Compositions of Brass 161 

Brass Castings, mode of Casting.. 161 

ROPE. 

To find the Breaking Weight of 

Tarred Hemp Rope 162 

To find the Weight per Fathom of 

Rope or Tarred Cordage 163 

To find the Weight per Fathom of 

Tarred Hawser or Manilla Rope 163 
To find the Weight per Fathom of 

Hawser laid Manilla 163 

WEIGHT OF CASTINGS. 
To find the "Weight of any Casting 163 
To find the Weight from the Areas 163 

To find ihe Weight in cwts 163 

Weight of Boiler Plates 163 

To find the Weight of Boiler Plates 164 

CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 

When Time is not taken into Ac- 
count 164 



10 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

To find the number of Revolutions 
of ihe last lo one of the first, in a 
train of Wheels and Pinions. . . . 164 

When Time must be regarded. . . . 165 

The distance between the Centres 
and Velocities of two Wheels be- 
ing given, to find their Diameters 165 

To determine the Proportion of 
Wheels for Screw-cutting by a 
Lathe 166 

Table of Change Wheels for Screw 
cu'iing; the leading Screw be- 
ing half inch pilch, or contain- 
ing 2 threads in an inch 167 

Table by w^hich to determine the 
Numl)pr of Teeth, or Pitch of 
Small Wheels, or what is called 
the Manchester Principle 167 

Strength of the Teeth of Cast Iron 
Wheels at a given Velocity 16S 

WHEELS AXD GUDGEONS. 

To find size of Teeth necessary to 
transmit a given Horse Power. . 168 

To find the Horse Power that any 
Wheel will transmit 169 



Pag«. 

To find the multiplying Number for 
any Wheel 169 

To find the Size of Teeth to carry 
a given Load in lbs 169 

WATER. 

To find the Quantity of Water that 
will be discharged through an 
Orifice, or Pipe, in the side or 
bottom of a Vessel 169 

To find the size of Hole necessary 
to discharge a given Quantity of 
Water under a given Head 170 

To find the Height necessary to 
discharge a given Quantity thro' 
a given Orifice 170 

The Velocity of Water issumg 
from an Orifice in the side or bot- 
tom of a Vessel ascertained ... 170 

To find the Quantity of Water that 
will run through any Orifice, the 
top of which Is level with the 
Surface of Water, as over a 
Sluice or Dam 170 

To find ihe Time in which a Vessel 
will empty iiself through g. given 
Orifice 170 



MECHANICAL TABLES FOR THE USE OF OPERATIVE 
SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS, AND ENGINEERS. 

Tables of the Diameters and Cir- \ Parallel Angle Iron, unequal sides 186 

oumferences of Circles 171 Taper Angle Iron, of equal sides. . 186 

0!>:?ervations on do. 177 ; Parallel T Iron, unequal width and 

Cin-umferences of Angled Iron | depth 187 

Hoops — outside 179 i Parallel T Iron, of equal depth and 

Circumferences of Angled Iron | width 187 

Hoops— inside ISO I Taper T Iron 187 

Ohservaiions on the above Tables 181 "' ""' ■ ^ ^ -. ^ ^ 

Tables of the Wright of 100 lbs. of 

Ship Spikes, Hatch Nails, Hook 

Heads, Deck Nails, Boat Spikes, 

Railroad Spikes & Horse Shoes 182 
Coppers, dimensions and weight of 183 

Copper Tubing, weight of. 183 

Brass, Copper, Steel and Lead, 

weight of a Foot from \ to 3 inch- 
es Round or Square 183 

Flat Cast Iron, weight of a Foot.. . 184 
Cast Iron, Weight of a Superficial 

Foot, from | to 2 ii>ches thick 
Table giving the Weight of Cast 

Iron, Copper, Brass, and Lead 

Balls, from 1 to 12 inch diameter 184 
Cast Iron, weight of a Foot in 

length of Square and Round.... 185 

SteeK weight of a Foot of Flat 185 

Parallel Angle Iron, of equal sides 186 



184 



Table of Weight of Sa^h Iron 198 

Table of Weight of Rails, top and 

bottom Tables 188 

Table of Weight of Temporary do. 138 
Tables showing the Weight of a 
lineal Foot of Malleable'Recian- 
gular, or Flat Iron, from >^ to 3 
inches in thickness 180 

ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM. 

Table of the Elastic Properties of 
Steam and corresponding tempe- 
rature of Water 194 

Production & Properties of Sieam li)5 

Table of the Elastic Farce of Steam 
the Pressure of the Atmosphere 
not being included 195 

Table of the Consumption of Coal 
per hour in Steamers 196 

Evaporative Power of Coal 196 



GAUGER'S RULES AND TABLES. 



To Gauge Casks, U. States Gallons 201 
To Gauge Casks, Imperial Gallons 202 
To Ullage, or find the contents of 
Casks partly filled 803 



Tables of the Comparative Value 
of Imperial and United States 
Measures 203 

Miscellaneous Tables 204 



RULES WITH DIAGRAMS 

FOR WORKERS IN 

TIN, SHEET IRON AND COPPER, 

AND 

TABLES GIVING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFEEENCES, 
AND AREAS OF QRCLES, 

AND 

THE CONTENTS OF EACH IN GALLONS, 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 



" The different processes of the manufacture of tin plate may be de- 
jwribed most properly in seven distinct stages. The first begins with 
the bars of iron which form the plate ; the last terminates with an 
account of the process of tinning their surface. The description is 
somewhat technical ; but a glance at the following heads will enable 
the reader to comprehend the whole process ; — 

** 1. Rolling is the first and most important point requisite to the 
production of the latten, or plates of iron, previous to the operation 
of tinning them. For this purpose the finest quality of charcoal iron 
Is invariably employed, which, in its commercial state, generally 
consists of long flat bars. These are cut into small squares averaging 
one-half an inch in thickness, which are heated repeatedly in a fur- 
nace, and are repeatedly passing through iron rollers. A convenient 
degree of thinness having been obtained, the now extended plates are 
•* doubled up," heated, rolled, opened-out, heated and rolled again, 
until, at length, the standard thickness of the plate has been reached. 

'* 2. Shearing, — A pair of massive shears worked by machinery, is 
now applied to the rugged edges of this lamellar formation of iron- 
plate. It is cut into oblong squares, 14. inches by 10, and presents the 
appearance of a single plate of iron, beautifully smooth on its surface. 
A juvenile with a knife soon^ destroys the appearance, however, and 
eight plates are produced from the ^ghtly coherent mass. 

" 3. Scaling, — This process consists in freeing the iron surface from 
its oxyd and scoriae. After an application of sulphuric acid, a number 
of plates, to the extent, we shall say, of 600 or 800, are packed in % 
cast-iron box, which is exposed for some hours to the heat of a furnace. 
On being opened the plates are found to have acquired a bright blue 
steel tint, and to be free from surface impurities. 

** 4. Cold Rolling. — It is impossible that the plates could pass 
through the last fiery ordeal without becoming disfigured. The cold 
rolling process corrects this. Each plate is separately passed through 
a p.iir of hard polished rollers, screwed tightly together. Not only do 
the plates acquire from this operation a high degree of smoothnesi 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN FLATES. 13 

and regularity, but they likewise acquire the peculiar elasticity of 
hammered metal. One man will cold roll 225,000 plates in a week, 
and each of them is, on an average, three times passed through the 
rollers. 

*' 5. Annealing. — This process is also a modern improvement on the 
manufacture : 600 plates are again packed into cast iron boxes and 
exposed to the furnace. There is this difference in the present pro- 
cess from that of scaling — that the boxes must be preserved air-tight, 
otherwise the contained plates would inevitably weld together and 
produce a solid mass. The infinitessimal portion of confined air 
prevents this. 

'' 6. Pickling. — The plates are again consigned to a bath of diluted 
acid, till the surface becomes uniformly bright and clean. Some 
nice manipulation belongs to this process. Each plate is, on its re- 
moval from the acid, subjected to a rigid scrutiny by women, whose 
vocation it is to detect any remaining impurity, and scour it from 
the surface. These multifarious operations, it will be seen, are all 
preliminary to the last, and the most important of all — that of tinning. 
Theoretically simple, this process is practically difficult , and to do 
it full justice would carry us beyond our limits. We shall however, 
mention the principal features 

" 7. Tinning. — A rectangular cast iron bath, heated from below, 
and calculated to contain 200 or 300 sheets, and about a tun of pure 
block tin, is now put in request. A stratum of pyreumatic fat floats 
upon its surface. Close to the side of this tin pot stands another re- 
ceptacle, which is filled with melted grease, and contains the prepared 
plates. On the other side is an empty pot, with a grating ; and last 
of all there is yet another pot, containing a small stratum of melted 
tin. Let us follow the progress of a single plate. A functionary 
known as the '* washerman," armed with tongs and a hempen brush, 
withdraws the plate from the bath of tin wherein it has been soaking ; 
and, with a degree of dexterity only to be acquired by long practice, 
sweeps one side of the plate clean, and then reversing it, repeats the 
operation. In an instant it is again submerged in the liquid tin, and 
is then as quickly transferred to the liquid grease. The peculiar use 
of the hot grease consists in the property it possesses of equalizing 
the distribution of the tin, of retaining the superfluous metal, and of 
spreading the remainder equally on the surface of the iron. Still 
there is left on the plate what we may term a salvage ; and this is 
2 



14 MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATES. 

finally removed by means of the last tin pot, which just contains the 
necessary quantity of fluid metal to melt it off — a smart blow being 
given at the same moment to assist the disengagement. The "list- 
mark," may be observed upon every tin plate without exception. 
We may add here, that an expert washerman will finish 6000 metal- 
lic plates in twelve hours, notwithstanding that each plate is twice 
washed on both sides, and twice dipped into the melted tin. After 
some intermediate operations — for we need not continue the consec- 
utive description — the plates are sent to the final operation of clean- 
ing. For this purpose they are rubbed with bran, and dusted upon 
tables ; after which they present the beautiful silvery appearance so 
characteristic of the best English tin plate. Last of all they reach 
an individual called the *' sorter," who subjects every plate to a 
strict examination, rejects those which are found to be defective, and 
sends those which are approved to be packed, 300 at a time, in the 
rough wooden boxes, with the cabalistic signs with which the most of 
us have been familiar since the days of our adventures in the back- 
Bhop of the tinsmith." — [From the Builder.'\ 



QUALITY OF TIN PLATE. 

The tests for tin plates are ductility, strength, and color ; and to 
possess these, the iron used must be of the best quality, and all the 
process be conducted with care and skill. The following conditions 
are inserted in some specifications, and will serve to indicate the 
strength and ductility of first-class tin plates : — 

1st, They must bear cutting into strips of a width equal to ten 
times the thickness of the plate, both with and across the fibre, with- 
out splitting ; the strips must bear, while hot, being bent upon a 
mould, to a sweep equal to four times the width of the strip. 

2nd, While cold, the plates must bear bending in a heading ma- 
chine, in such a manner as to form a cylinder, the diameter of which 
shall at most be equal to sixty times the thickness of the plate. ' In 
these tests, the plate must show neither flaw npr crack of any kind 



^xplMiitiott 0{ §mgt*Msi* 



TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF ANY DIAMETER. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Teuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 

Fig. 1. 




From the centre C describe a circle AB, having the required diam- 
eter ; then place the corner of the square at the centre C, and draw 
the lines CD and CE ; then draw the chord DE : three times the diam- 
eter added to the distance from the middle of the chord DFE to the 
middle of the subtending arc DGE, will be the circumference sought. 



TO FIND THE AREA OF THE SECTOR OF A CIRCLE. 
Rule. Multiply the length of the arc DGE by its radius DC, 
and half the product is the area. 

The length of the arc DGE equal 9J feet, and the radii CD, CE, 
equal 7 feet required the area. 

9-5x7 = 66-5 H- 2 = 33-25 the area. 



16 



PROPORTION OF CIRCLES. 



PROPORTION OF CIRCLES. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truksdell, Tinman, Owtgo,!^". T. 
Orl g;i ixa^l • 

Fig. 2. 




To enable machinists to enlarge or reduce machinery wheels with- 
out changing their respective motion. 

First, describe two circles AB and CD the size of the largest wheels 
which you wish to change to a large or small machine, with the 
gentre P of the smaller circle CD on the circumference of the large 
one AB ; then draw two lines LM and NO tangent to the circles AB 
and CD, and a line IK passing through their centres P and R ; then 
if you wish to reduce the machine, describe a circle the size you wish 
to reduce it to ; if one-half, for example, have the centre Q one-half 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 



17 



the distance from R to S and describe the circle EF, and on its cir- 
cumference T as a centre, describe a circle GH, allowing their cir- 
cumferences to touch the tangent lines LM and NO, which will make 
the circle EF one-half the size of the circle AB, and GH one-half the 
size of CD ; therefore EF and GH are in the same proportion to each 
other as AB and CD. 

If you wish to reduce one-third, have the centre Q one-third the 
distance from E, to S ; if one-fourth have the centre Q one-fourth the 
distance from R to S, and so on. This calculation may be applied 
beyond the centre R for enlarging machine wheels, which will enable 
you to make the alteration without changing their respective motion.^ 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE, or OVAL. 

[Simple Method.] 

Fig. 3. 



G r. 




At a given distance, equal to the required eccentricity of the ellipse, 
place two pins, A and B, and pass a string, ACB, round them ; 
keep the string stretched by a pencil or tracer, C, and move the pencil 
along, keeping the string all the while equally tense, then will th-e 
ellipse CGLFH be described. A and B are the foci of the ellipse, 
D the centre, DA or DB the eccentricity, EF the principal axis or 
longer diameter, G H the shorter diameter, and if from any point L in 
the curve a line be drawn perpendicular to the axis, then will LK 
be an ordinate to the axis corresponding to the point L, and the parts 
of the axis EK, KF into which LK divides it are said to be the ab- 
scissae corresponding to that ordinate. 

NOTE. — Oval. A curve line, the two diameters of which are of unequal 
lenofth, and is allied in form to the ellipse. An ellipse is thai figure which is 
produced by cutting a cone or cylinder in a direction oblique to its axis, and 
passing through its sides. An oval may be formed by joining different seg- 
ments of circles, so that their meeting shall not be perceived, but form a contin- 
uous curve line. All ellipses are ovals, but all ovals are r.ot ellipst^s ; for the 
term oval may be applied to all egg-shaped figures, those which are broader at 
Qiie end than the other, as well as those whose ^nds are equally curve4» 

2* 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 

[Drawnfor this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Ovrego, N. Y.3 
Origiiaa/l. 

Fig. 4. 

D 



w 




Ti 



Tc describe an ellipse of any length and width, and by it to describe 
a pattern for the sides of a vessel of any flare. 

First draw an indefinite line DE perpendicular to the line AB, and 
from C, the point of intersection, as a centre, describe a circle FG, 
having the diameter equal to the length of the ellipse ; from the 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 19 

game centre C describe a circle HJ equal to the width ; then describe 
the end circles LK' and LK, as much less than the width as the width 
is less than the length ; then draw the lines MN and MN tangent to 
the circles K'L, HJ and KL ; from the middle of the line MN at erect 
a perpendicular produced until it intersects the indefinite line DE : 
from the point of intersection P as a centre, describe the arc K'HK, 
and with the same sweep of the dividers mark the point R on the line 
DE ; from the point R draw the lines RU and RV through the points 
K' and K where the arc K'HK touches the end circles K'L and KL ; 
then place one foot of the dividers on the point R and span them to 
the point H, and describe the arc Q'HQ, which will be equal in length 
to the arc K'HK ; from the same centre R describe the arc UWV the 
width of the pattern ; then span the dividers the diameter of the end 
circle KL ; place one foot of the dividers on the line RV, at point Q, 
and the other at Y as a centre, describe the arc QT the length of 
the curve line KG, and with the same sweep of the dividers describe 
the arc T'Q' from the centre Y' on the line RU ; then span the dividers 
from Y' to U, and from Y' as a centre, describe the arc UX, and from 
Y as a centre, describe the arc VX, which completes the description of 
the pattern. 

The more flare you wish the pattern to have, the nearer the centre 
point R must be to H ; and the less flare, the further the centre point 
R must be from H ; in the same proportion as you move the centre 
R towards, or from H, you must move the centre Y towards, or from 
Q, or which would be the same as spanning the dividers less, or greater, 
than the diameter of the end circle KL. 

TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF AN ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, and 
the product will be the circumference. 

Example. — Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter 
diameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 5, 
multiplied by 3*1416 equal 15-7080 inches circumference. 



TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, and 
by -7854, and the product will be the area. 

Example. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diameter 
is inches and shorter diameter 4 inches ? 

6 X 4 X -7854 = 18-8496, the area. 



20 



TO DESCRIBE A RIGHT ANGLED ELBOW. 



TO DESCRIBE A EIGHT ANGLED ELBOW. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. YJ 
Ori^ina/l • 

Fig. 5. 




First construct a rectangle ADEB equal in width to the diameter 
of the elbow, and the length equal to the circumference; then from 
the point J, the middle of the line AB, draw the line JH, and from 
the point F, the middle of the line AD, draw the line FG ; from, the 
point J draw two diagonal lines JD and JE ; then span the dividers 
so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, viz. 
J, L, 0, T, 0, V, E ; from the point L erect a perpendicular, pro- 
duced to the line JH ; from the point of contact M, as a centre, 
describe th^ arg NJO for the top of thQ elbow, and from the pointg 



TO DESCRIBE A STtlAlGMT ELfiOW. 



21 



M' and M' as centres, with the same sweep of the dividers, describe 
the arcs NO and NO ; then draw an indefinite straight line PQ tan- 
gent to the arcs NO and NJ, having the points of contact at S and 
S ; on this tangent line erect a perpendicular passing through the 
point N produced until it intersects the line BE produced ; then plac« 
one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection R and span them 
over the dotted line to the point T, and with the dividers thus spanned 
describe the arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS ; these arcs and the arcs NO, 
NJO, and ON will be the right angled elbow required. 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 

cold Method.] 

Fig. 6. 



A 




: 1 










•V 


^^ 


■^^ 












\ 




1 


N 
















\ 










^ 


\. 






2 


\ 






/ 










\ 






/ 


a 










3\ 
4-1 




} 


c 










a. 


\ 




f 












5/ . 


/ 


& 














e, 


\ 


\ 










6 


// 


€U 


















f 


^ 


\ 




B 


7, 


y 
























' 


V 


7 


^ 

































Mark out the length and depth of the elbow, ABCD ; draw a semi- 
circle at each end, as from AB and CD ; divide each semicircle 
into eight parts ; draw horizontal lines as shown from 1 to 1, 2 
to 2, &c. ; divide the circumference or length, ACBD, into sixteen 
equal parts, and draw perpendicular lines as in figure ; draw a line 
from a to 6 and from 6 to c, and on the opposite side from c? to 6 
and e to/; for the top sweep set the dividers on fourth line from 
top and sweep two of the spaces ; the same at the corner ; on 
space for tke remaining sweeps set the dividers so to intersect in 
the three corners of the spaces marked X . The seams must 1»« 
added to drawing. 



22 



TO DESCRIBE A CttftVED ELBOW. 



TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW. 

tPrawn for tlxis worX by L. W. Tsus sdbll, Tiaman, OwegOi 2C« 7*3 
Orlgrlzial* 

Fia. r. 



r\ 




^°/X 


y 


V 


yA 


•■ 


ly\_^ ■^\ 




V 


X 



Tig. 8. 




TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW. 23 

Describe two circles UX and VS, the curves desired for tlie elbow, 
haying the distance from U to V equal to the diameter ; then divide 
the circle V, W, R and S, into as many sections as desired ; then 
construct a rectangle, Fig. 8, ADEB, the width equal to the width of 
one section VW, Fig. 7, and the length equal to the circumference of 
the elbow ; then span the dividers from the point R to the point P at 
the dotted line, Fig. 7, and with the dividers thus spanned mark the 
points FF' Fig. 8, from points A and D, and draw the lines FG and 
F'G' ; from point I draw the two diagonal lines IF and IG, span the 
dividers so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, 
viz. I, L, 0, T, 0, V, G ; from the point L erect a perpendicular 
line produced until it intersects the line IH produced ; from the 
point of intersection M, as a centre, describe the arc NIO for the top 
of the elbow ; with the same sweep ol the dividers describe the arcs NO 
and NO ; then draw an indefinite straight line PQ tangent to the 
arcs NO and NI, having the points of contact at S and S ; on this 
tangent line erect a perpendicular line passing through the point N 
(same as in Fig. 5), produced until it intersects the line BE pro- 
duced ; then place one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection 
and span them over the dotted line to the point T, (same as in Fig. 5), 
and with the dividers spanned describe the arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS ; 
these arcs and the arcs NO, NIO and ON, will be one side of the 
section, and by the same rule the other side of the section may be 
described at the same time, which will be a pattern to cut the other 
sections by. 

SOLDERING. 

For Lead the solder is 1 part tin, 1 to 2 of lead; — for Tin 1 to 
2 parts tin to 1 of lead ; — for Zinc 1 part tin to 1 to 2 of lead ; — 
for Pewter 1 part tin to 1 of lead, and 1 to 2 parts of bismuth. 

The surfaces to be joined are made perfectly clean and smooth, and 
then covered with sal-ammoniac, or resin, or both ; the solder is then 
applied, being melted in, and smoothed over by the soldering iron. 

To Joint Lead Plates. — The joints of lead plates for some purposes 
are made as follows : — The edges are brought together, hammered 
down into a sort of channel cut out of wood, and secured with a few 
tacks. The hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed over 
with candle grease» and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the 
surface being afterwards smoothed with a red-hot plumber's iron. 



24 



TO DESCRIBE A STUAIGST ELBOW. 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 

[Another Method for describing a Straight Elbow.] 

Figs. 9 & 10. 
Fig. 10. Fig, 9. 



lj^ 










f 




















^. 


p^ 


>^ 


g 
















^ 


[y 






\ 


\ 












'; 


/ 










\ 


c 

\ 








I 


/ 














\ 


h 




a 


y 


















N. 


a 




Fig. 9. — Draw a profile of half of the elbow wanted, and mark 
a semicircle on the line representing the diameter, divide the semi- 
circle into six equal parts, draw perpendicular lines from each divi- 
sion on the circle to the angle line as on figure. 

Fig. 10. Draw the circumference and depth of elbow wunted, 
and divide into twelve equal parts, mark the height of perpendic- 
ular lines of Fig. 9 on Fig. 10 a ^ c &c. ; set your dividers the 
same as for the semicircle and sweep from e to e intersecting with / 
and the same from a to the corner^ then set the dividers one-third 
the circumference and sweep from e to d each side^ and from a to 6 
euch side at bottom ; then set your dividers three-fourths of the cir- 
cumference and sweep from c to d each side on top, and from c to 
b at bottom, and you obtain a more correct pattern than is gen- 
erally used. Allow for the lap or seam outside of your drawing, 
and lay out the elbow deep enough to put together by swedge or 
nmchine. Be careful in dividing and marking out, and the large 
end will be true without trimming. The seams must be added to 
drawing. 

To Joint Lead Pipes. — Widen out the end of one pipe with a taper 
wood drift, and scrape it clean inside ; scrape the end of the other pipe 
outside a little tapered, and insert it in the former : then solder it with 
eommon lead solder as before described ; or if required to be strong, 
rub a little tallow over, and cover the joint with a ball of melted 
lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bed-tick) on the under 
side ; and smoothing over with it and the plumber's iron. 



TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS. 



21 



TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS FOR VESSELS, OR 
BREASTS FOR CANS. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, TlniTian, Owego, N. Y.] 

Fig. 11. 




From as a centre, describe a circle DE larger than the vessel ; 
and from C as a centre, describe a circle AB the size of the vessel, then 
with the dividers the same as you described the circle the size of the 
vessel, apply them six times on the circumference of the circle larger 
than the vessel ; for can-breasts describe the circle FG the size you 
wish for the opening of the breast. 



TO DESCRIBE PITCHED COVERS FOR PAILS, &c. 
Fig. 12. 




To cut for pitched covers, draw a circle one inch larger than the 
hoop is in diameter after burring, then draw a line from the centre to 
3 



26 



OVAL BOILER COVEtl. 



the circumference as in the figi^re, and one inch from the centre and 
connecting with this line draw two more lines the ends of which shall 
be one inch on either side of the line first drawn, and then cat out 
the piece. 



TO DESCRIBE AN OYAL BOILER COVER. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.} 

Fig. 13. 




From C as a centre, describe a circle whose diameter will be equal 
to the width of the boiler outside of the wire, and draw the line AB 
perpendicular to the line EF, having it pass through the point D, which 
is one-half of the length of the boiler ; then mark the point J one 
quarter of an inch or more as jou wish, for the pitch of the cover, and 
apply the corner of the square on the line AB, allowing the blade to 
fall on the circle at H, and the tongue at the point J ; then draw the 
lines HB, BJ, GA and AJ, which completes the description. 



TO DESCtllB^ A LIP TO A MEASttlt:E. 2f 

TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE, 

[Drawn for this work bj L. "VY. Truesdbll, Tinman, Owego, K. Y.] 
Oirig;inal. 

FiQ. 14. 




Let lAe circle AB represent the size of the measure ; spAn the divi- 
ders from K to F three-quarters of the diameter ; describe the semi- 
circle DKE ; move the dividers to G the width of the lip required, and 
describe the semicircle KPJ, which will be the lip sought. 

THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS. 

1. The Areas of Circles are to each other as the squares of their 
diameters ; any circle twice the diameter of another contains four 
times the area of the other. 

2. The Radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre 
to the circumference. 

3. The Diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the 
centre, and terminated both ways at the circumference. 

4. A Chord is a straight line joining any two points of the circum- 
ference. 

5. An Arc is any part of the circumference. 

6. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter. 

7. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord. 

8. A Sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii. 



28 



i^LARING VESSfet. 



fO DESCRIBE A FLAKING VESSEL PATTERN, A SET Of 

PATTERNS FOR A PYRAMID CAKE, OR AN 

ENVELOPE FOR A CONE. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 
Original. 

Fig. 15. 




Prom a point C as a centre, describe a circle AB equal to the large 
circumference ; with the point F as a centre, the depth of the yessel, 
describe a circle DE equal to the small circumference ; then draw the 
lines GH and RS tangent to the circles AB and DE ; from the point 
of intersection as a centre, describe the arcs ACB and DFE ; then 
ADEB will be the size of the vessel, and three such pieces will be an 
envelope for it, and AJBTFU the altitude ; then by dividing the sector^ 



TO DESCRIBE THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 29 

SOH into sections AB, DE, PQ, and WX, you will have a set cf 
patterns for a pyramid cake ; and the sector AOB will be one-third of 
an envelope for a cone. 

In allowing for locks, you must draw the lines parallel to the radii, 
as represented in the diagram by dotted lines, which will bring the 
TCfisel true across the top and bottom. 



TO DESCRIBE A CO'^^E OR FRUSTUM. 
Fig. 1G. 
-._ D 



C- 



fr\ 



First draw a side elevation of the desired vessel, DE, then from A 
as a centre describe the arcj CDC and GEG ; aft^r finding the diam- 
eter of the top or large end, turn to the table of Diameters and Cir- 
cumferences, where you will find the true circumference, which you 
will proceed to lay out on the upper or larger arc CDC, making due 
allowance for the locks, wire and burr. This is for one piece ; if for 
two pieces you will lay out only one-half the circumference on the 
plate ; if for three pieces one-third ; if for four pieces one-fourth ; and 
so on for any number, remembering to make the allowance for locks^ 
wire and burr on the piece ^^ou use for a patteru. 

3» 



30 



TO DESCRIBE A HEART. CYCLOID. 



TO DESCRIBE A HEART. 

[Drawn for this work bj L. W. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owcgo, N. Y.] 

Fig. 17. 




Draw an indefinite line AB ; then span the dividers one-fourth the 
width you wish the heart, and describe two semicircumfereoces AC 
and CB ; span the dividers from A to B, the width of the heart, and 
describe the lines AD and BD, which completes the description. 



CYCLOID. 

Fig. 18. 




A B 

Cycloid, a curve much used in mechanics. It is thus formed : — 

If the circumference of a circle be rolled on a right line, beginning 

at any point A, and continued till the same point A arrive at the 

line again, making just one revolution, and thereby measuring out 

^ straight line ABA equal to the circuinf^^r^oce of a circle, while th^ 



TO STRIKE THE SIDE OF A FLAKING VESSEL. 31 

point A in the circumference traces out a curve line ACAGA : then 
this curve is called a cycloid ; and some of its properties are contained 
in the following lemma. 

If the generating or revolving circle be placed in the middle of the 
cycloid, its diameter coinciding with the axis AC, and from any point 
there be drawn the tangent CF, the ordinate CDE perpendicular to 
the axis, and the chord of the circle AD ; then the chief properties 
are these : 

The right line CD equal to the circular arc AD ; 

The cycloidal arc AC equal to double the chord AD ; 

The semi-cycloid ACA equal to double the diameter AB, and 

The tangent CF is parallel to the chord AD. 
This curve ia the line of swiftest descent, and that best suited for 
the path of the ball of a pendulum. 



TO STRIKE THE SIDE OF A FLARING VESSEL. 

Fig. 19. 



-^^ 




To find the radius of a circle for striking the side of a flaring ves- 
sel having the diameters and depth of side given. 

Rule. — As the difference between the large and small diameter 
is to the depth of the side, so is the small diameter to the radius 
of the circle by which it is struck. 

Example. — Suppose ABCD to be the desired vessel, with a 
top diameter of 12 inches, bottom diameter 9 inches, depth of side 
8 inches. Then as 12 — 9 = 3 : 8 : : 9 to the radius. 

8X 9 = 72-r-3 = 21 inches, answer. 

TINNING IRON. 
Cleanse the metal to be tinned, and rub with a coarse cloth, 
previously dipped in hydrochloric acid, (muriatic acid) and then rub 
on French putty with the same cloth. French putty is made by 
mUln^ tin filings with mercury, 



32 



TO DESCRIBE BREASTS FOR CANS. 



TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS FOR VESSELS, OK 

BREASTS FOR CANS. 

Fig. 20. 




Construct a right angle ADD, and from the point C, the altitude 
height you wish the breast, erect a perpendicular line F ; then on the 
line B, mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can ; and on the 
line F, mark the point G one-^half the diameter of the opening in the 
top of breast ; draw a line N to pass through the points E and G pro- 
duced until it intersects the line A ; place one foot of the dividers at 
the point of intersection II, and place the other on the point E, and 
describe the circle EIK ; span the dividers from the point H to point 
G, and describe the circle GLM ; then span the dividers from the 
point D to E, and step them six times on the circle EIK, which gives 
the size of the breast. Remember to mark the lines for the locks 
parallel with the radii. 

A GOOD SOLDER. 

Take 1 lb. of pure Banca tin, and melt it, then add half a pound 
of clean lead, and when it is melted, stir the mixture gently with ^ 
Btick or poker, and pour it out into solder strips, 



TO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE. 33 

rO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE FROM A PART 
OF THE CIRCUMFERENCE. 

[Drawn for thii -vrork by L. W. Teuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 
Original . 

Fig. 21. 
Span the dividers any distance you wish, and place one foot on the 
sircumfercnce AB, and describe the semicircumferences CD, EF, GH, 
and IK, and through the points of their intersection PQ and RS, 
draw two indefinite lines LM and NO ; the point of their intersection 
r, will be the centre desired. 




34 



TO CONSTRUCT THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 



SECTOR, FOR OBTAINING ANGLES. 
Fig. 22. 




Sector, a portion of a circle comprehended between any two 
radii and their intercepted arcs.— Similar Sectors are those whose 
rs dii include equal angles. 

To find the area of a sector. Say as 360^ is to the de^rjet^, &c'., 
in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the whc»le circle to the inya 
uf the sector. Or multiply the radius by the length of the arc, and 
half the product will be the area. 



TO CONSTRUCT THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 

Form of flat Plate by which to construct any Frustum of a Cone, 

Fig. 23. 




Let ABCD represent the required frustum ; continue the lines 
AD and BC until they meet at E ; then from E as centre, with the 
radius EC, describe the arc CH ; also from E, with the radius 
EB, describe the arc BI ; make BI equal in length to twice AGB, 
draw the line EI, and BCIH is the form of the plate as required. 



STRIKING OUT A CONE. 



35 



RULE FOK STRIKING OUT A CONE OR FRUSTUAL 
Fig. 24. 
C 




In a conical surface, there may be economy, sometimes, in having 
the slant height 6 times the radius of base. For a Circle may be 
wholly cut into conical surfaces, if the angle is 60°, 30°, 15°, &c. 

But there is a greater simplicity in cutting it, when the angle is 
60°. For instance, take AC equal to the slant height, describe an 
indefinite arc AO ; with the same opening of the dividers measure 
from A to B ; draw BC and we have the required sector. This 
would make the angle C equal 60°. This angle may be divided 
into two or four equal parts, and we should thus have sectors whose 
angle would be 30° or 15°, which would not make the vessel very 
flaring. The accompanying figure gives about the shape of the flar- 

FiG. 25. 




Ing vessel when the angle of the sector is 30°. 



TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A PYRAMID OR CONE. 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the base by the height, and one-thirJ 
of the product will be the solid content. 

Example, — Required the solid content in inches of a Cone or Py- 
ramid, the diameter of the base being 8 inches, and perpendicular 
height 18 inches? 
8 X S = 64 X .7854 X IS = 904.7808 -r 3 = 301.5936 inches -i- 231 == 1 gall. IJ qta. 



SG CONTEXTS IN GALLONS OF A FHUSTUM OF A CONE. 



HIPPED ROOFS, MILL HOPPERS, &c. 
To find the various Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials 
whereby to construct any figure whose form is the Frustum of a 
proper or inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, ^c. 
Fig. 26. 

D C 



K 


X/ ^ 


1 


/ y 


\/\ 




/ 


^ R 


s 



Let ABCD be the given dimensions of plan for a roof, the height 
RT also being given ; draw the diagonal AR, meeting the top or 
ridge Rs on plan ; from R, at right angles with AR and equal to 
the required height, draw the line RT, then TA, equal the length of 
the struts or corners of the roof; from A, with the distance AT, 
describe an arc TZ, continue the diagonal AR until it cuts the arc 
TZ, through which, and parallel with the ridge Rs, draw the line 
m n, which determines the required breadth for each side of the 
roof: from A, meeting the line m n, draw the line x\o, or proper 
angle for the end of each board by wtiicli the roof might require to 
be covered ; and the angle at T is what the boards require to be made 
in the direction of their thickness, when the corners or angles re- 
quire to be mitred. 



CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 
Figs. 27, 28, 29. 




To find the Contents in Gallons of a Vessel, whose diameter i£ 
larger at one end than the other, such as a Bowl, Pail, Fiskin, 
Tub, Coffee-pot, &c. 

Rule. — Multiply the larger diameter by the smaller, and to .lh§ 



CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF SQUARE VESSELS. 



37 



product add one-third of the square of their difference, multiply bj 
the height, and multiply that product by .0034 for Wine Gallons, and 
by .002785 for Beer. 

Example. — Kequired the contents of a Coffee-pot 6 inches diameter 
at the top, 9 inches at the bottom, and 18 inches high. 



large diameter 9 
small do. 6 


brought 


up 
or 


1026 
.0084 


54 
i of the square 3 


4104 
8078 


57 
height 18 

456 
57 


8.4884 
nearly J 



Carried up 1026 

1026 multiplied by .002785 equal 2.8574 Beer Gallont. 



RULE TO FIND THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF ANY 
SQUARE VESSEL. 

Rule. — Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch, multiply the length, breadth, and height together, and then 
multiply the product by .004329 for Wine Gallons, and by .003546 
for Ale Gallons. 

Example. — How many Wine Gallons will a box contain that is 10 
feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. 



Length in inches. 
Breadth in do. 



120 
60 



brought up 345600 
.004329 



Height in inches. 



7200 
48 

57600 
28800 



3110400 
691200 
1036800 
1382400 



Carried up, 345600 
4 



1496.102400 gallons. 
or 1496 galls, and 84 gills 



38 CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS. 

CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS. 

RuLk. — Take the dimensions, in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the length in inches, and 
then multiply the product by .0034 for Wine Gallons, or by .002785 
for Ale Gallons. 

Example.— How many U. S. Gallons will a Cylindrical Vessel con- 
tain, whose diameter is 9 inches, and length 94 inches? 

Diameter, 9 brought up 769.5 

9 .0034 



Square Diam. 81 
Length, 9.5 


30780 
23085 


405 
729 


2.61630 
or 2 gallons and 5 pinti 


Carried up, 769.5 





TO ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHTS OF PIPES OF VARIOUS 
METALS, AND ANY DIAMETER REQUIRED. 



Thickness in 








parts of an 


Wrought iron. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


inch. 








1-32 


•326 


114 lbs. plate ^38 


2 lbs. lead -483 


1-16 


•653 


25^ " ^76 


4 ^' ^967 


3-32 


•976 


35 '' 114 


54 ^' 1-45 


1-8 


1-3 


464 " 152 


8 '^ 1-933 


5-32 


1-627 


58 " 1-9 


91 " 2 417 


3-16 


1-95 


70 '' 2-28 


11 " 29 


7-32 


2-277 


804 '' ^-^^ 


13 '^ 3383 


1-4 


2-6 


93 " 304 


15 " 3.867 



Rule. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inrhes, add the thickness 
of the metal •, multiply the sum b}' the dpcimal numbers opposite the re- 
quired thickness and under tlie metal's name; albo by the length of the 
pipe in feet, and the product is the weight of the pipe in lbs. 

1. Required the weight of a copper pipe whose interior diameter is 7i 
incheS; its length 64 feet, and the metal 1-8 of an inch in thickness. 

7-5 + •125 = 7-625 x 1-52 x 6-25 = 724 lbs. 

2. What is the weight of a lenden pipe 184 ^"^^t in length, 3 inches ia 
Icrior diameter, and the metal ^ of an inch in thickness ? 

3 + -25 - 3-25 y 3-867 X 185 - 2325 lbs. 



TIN PLATES. — QUANTITY OF TIN FOR CANS. 



TIN PLATES. 



Size, 


Le/ii/lh, Breadth, ana 


' Wei'jJit. 


Bbako Mask. 


No. of 
Sheets 
in Box. 


Length and 1 Weight per 
Breadth. Box. 








Inches. laches. Cwt 


. qr. lbs. 




1 C 


225 


14 by 10 


1 





" 


1 X 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 




1 XX 


225 


14 bv 10 


1 


1 21 


1 Each Ix advance* 


1 XXX 

1 xxxx 


225 
225 


14 by 10 
14 bv 10 


1 

1 


2 14 

3 7 


r $1.75 to $2.00 


1 xxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 







1 xxxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 


21 




DC 


100 


17 by 124 





3 14 


O ^^^ O CO 


D X 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


14 


«3 O /,•» 


D XX 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


1 7 


^ ~ -* 3 


D XXX 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


2 


>. E, « -, 


D XXXX 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


2 21 




D XXXXX 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


3 14 


'— .— 5 IS 


D xxxxxx 


100 


17 by 124 


2 


7 


•^ Q i> > , 
*j £1, w t« 


S DC 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


1 27 


S " = ^ ?^ 


S D X 


200 


15 bv 11 


1 


2 20 


bL'o «« 2 » 


S Dxx 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


3 13 


c.^^- - 


S D xxx 
S D xxxx 


200 
200 


15 by 11 
15 by 11 


2 
2 


6 
27 


ition, 
or ted 
costii 
than 


S D xxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


1 20 


'5 12 >^ c "O 


S D xxxxxx 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


2 13 


a ."zzz o ^ 








about 


^ ^ 7 o « 


TTT Taggers, 


225 


14 by 10 


1 





S 5 K.S 


1 C 


225 


12 by 12 


' 






I X 


225 


12 by 12 








1 XX 


225 


12 by 12 








1 xxx 


225 


12 by 12 








1 xxxx 


225 


12 by 12 


► 




About the same weight 

► per Box, as the plates 

above of similar brand, 


1 C 


112 


14 by 20 






1 X 


112 


14 by 20 






14 by 10. 


I XX 


112 


14 by 20 






1 xxx 


112 


14 by 20 








I xxxx 


112 


14 by 20 


- 






Leaded or\\ C 
Ternes ]\ x 


112 
112 


14 by 20 
14 by 20 


1 
1 




1 


i For Roofing. 



OIL CANISTERS, (from 2^ to \2o ^alls.) \Y\T\\ THE QUANTITY 
AND QUALITY OF TL\ REQUIRED FOR CUSTOM WORK. 



Ualls. 


Quantity and Quality. ,' 


Galls. 

33 


Qtiantity and Quality. 


24 


2 Plates, I X in body. | 


134 Plates, IX in body, 3 


3* 


2 " S DX " 




breadths hio:h. 


54 


2 " DX " 


45 


134 Plates.SDXinbody 


8 


4 " IX 


60 


134 *' D X " 


10 


34 " DX " 


90 


\bi «* D X " • 


15 


4 « DX « 


125 


20 " D X " 



• The boitora tier of plates to be placed lengthwise 



40 WEIGHT OF WATER AND DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS. 



WEIGHT or WATER. 

1 cubic inch is equal to .03617 pounds. 

12 cubic inches is equal to .431: pounds, 

1 cubic foot is equal to G2.5 pounds. 

1 cubic foot is equal to 7.50 U. S. galbna. 

1.8 cubic feet is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

85.84 cubic feet is equal to 2210.00 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical inch . . is equal to .02812 pounds. 

12 Cylindrical inches, is equal to .341 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical foot .. is equal to 49.10 pounds. 

1 Cylindrical foot . . is equal to 6.00 U. S. Gallona. 

2.282 Cylindrical feet .. is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

45.64 Cylindrical feet . . is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

11.2 Imperial gallons . . is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

224 Imperial gallons . . is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

13.44 United States galls, is equal to 112.00 pounds. 

208.8 United States galls, is equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface. 



DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO THE FRACTIONAL PARTS 

OF A GALLON, OR AN INCH. 

[The IucIl, or G-aUon, being divided into 32 parts.] 

[In multiplying decimals it is usual to drop all but the two or tlrree first figi7rea.] 



Deci- 
mals. 


Gallon. 

or 
Inch. 


i 




$ 1 

3 ! 

S ! 


Deci- 
mals. 


Gallon. 

or 

Inch. 


o 


00 

d 


S 
& 


Decimals. 


Gallon. 

or 
Inch. 


i 

5 


i 


& 


.03125 


1-32 


1 


1 


il 


.375 


3-8 


12 


3 


14 


.71875 


23-32 


23 


5| 


25 


.0625 


1-16 


2 


^ 


i 


.40625 


13-32 


13 


^k 


1^1 


.75 


3-4 


24 


6 


3 


.09375 


3 32 


3 


1 




.4375 


7-16 


14 


Sh 


15 


.78125 


25-32 


25 


6A 


3J 


.125 


1-8 


4 


1 


J 


.46875 


15-32 


15 


85 


IS 


.8125 


13-16 


26 


64 


3i 


.15625 


5-32 


5 


14 


r 


.5 


1-2 


16 


4 


2 


.84375 


27-32 


27 


61 


3i 


.1875 


3-16 


6 


n 




1.53125 


17-32 


17 


4^ 


2i 


.875 


7-8 


28 


7 


34 


.21875 


7-32 


7 


ii 


J 


.5625 


9-16 


IS 


4h 


^ 


.90625 


29 32 


29 


74 


3^ 


.25 


1-4 


8 


2 


1 1 


1.59375 


19-32 


19 


4i 


2Si 


.9375 


15-16 


30 


74 


3i 


,28125 


9 32 


9 


24 


u' 


1.625 


5-8 


20 


5 


24! 


.96875 


31-32 


31 


73 


3i 


.3125 


5-16 10 


24 


H 


.65625 


21-32 


21 


H 


2|j 


1.000 


1 


32,8 


4 


.34375 


jll-32 


,1A 


2| 


111 


i.6875 


11-16 


22 


5h 


|2Si 













APPLICATION. Required the gallons in any Cylindrical Vessel. Sup- 
pose a vessel 9 l-^ inches deep, 9 inches diameter, and contents 26163, 
that is, 2 g-allons and 61 hundredlh parts of a gal'on, now to ascertain this de- 
cimal of a gallon refer to tlie above Table, for the decimal that is nearest, 
which is •625, opposite to which is o-8ihs of a gfalinn, or 20 gills, or 5 pints, 
or 2 1-2 quarts, consequently the vessel contains "2 gallons and 5 pmts. 

INCHES To find what part of an inch the decim:il -708 is. Refer to 
the above Table for the decimal that is nearest, which is -71875, opposite 
to which is 23-32, or nearly 3-4ths of an inch. 



A. TABLE 

CONTAINING THE 

DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS 
OF CIRCLES, 

AND THE 

CONTENT OF EACH IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 
TJTIX.ITir OF THE TJ^BILE. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter being yii?« 
inches ? 

Id the column of circumferences opposite the given diameter, 
stands 15*708* inches, the circumference required. 

2. Required the capacity, in gallons, of a can the diameter being 
6 feet and depth 10 feet ? 

In the fourth column from the given diameter stands 211.4472* 
being the content of a can 6 feet in diameter and 1 foot in depth, 
which being multipled by 10 gives the required content, two thou- 
sand one hundred fourteen and a half gallons. 

3. Any of the areas in feet multiplied by .03704, the product equal 
llie number of cubic yards at 1 foot in depth. 

4. The area of a circle in inches multiplied by the length or thick- 
ness in inches, and by .263, the product equal the weight in pounds 
of cast iron. 

* See opposite pa?e (page 40) for Decimal Equivalents to the Fraciiciiai p%iti 
»f a Galloiij and an Inch. 



4" 



42 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, AND 
THE CONTENT IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 



lArea in Inches,'] 



Diam Circ. in. 



1 in. 



2 m. 



\ 



4 in. 



J 

5 II). 

i 



6 in. 

i 



31416 
3-5343 
3 9270 
4-3197 
4-7124 
5-1051 
5-4978 
5-8905 
C-2S32 

6 6759 
7-0686 

7 4613 
7-8540 
82467 
8-6394 
90321 
9-4248 
9-8175 

10210 
10-602 

10 995 
11-388 

11 781 

12 173 
12-566 
12 959 
13351 
13-744 
14137 
14 529 
14-922 
15-315 
15708 
16-100 
16-493 
16-886 
17278 
17-671 
18-064 
18457 
18-849 
19-242 
19635 
20-027 



Area, in. 

•7854 

•9940 

1-2271 

1 4848 
1-7671 

2 0739 
2-4052 
2-7611 
3-1416 
3-5465 
3-9760 
4-4302 
4-9087 
5-4119 
5-9395 
6-4918 
7-06^6 
7-6699 
8.2957 
8-9462 
9-6211 

10-320 
11-044 
11 793 
12-566 
13364 
14-186 
15033 
15-904 
16-800 
17 720 
18-665 
19-635 
20-629 
21-647 
22-690 
23 758 
24-850 
25 967 
27-108 
28-274 
29464 
30-679 
31-919 



Gallons. 



-040S4 

•05169 

•063S0 

•077J7 

•09188 

•10784 

•12506 

•14357 

•16:^33 

•18439 

•20675 

•23036 

•25522 

•23142 

-30S83 

•33753 

36754 

-39879 

•43134 

•46519 

•50029 

53664 

•.'7429 

•61324 

•65343 

69493 

•73767 

• 8172 

'82701 

•87360 

•92144 

•97058 

1-02102 

1 07271 

1 12564 

1-17988 

1 23542 

1-29220 

1-35023 

1-4J932 

1 47025 

1 53213 

I 59531 

i 1-65979 



6 h 



8 in. 



Diam. Circ. in. 



8 
in. 

1 

8 



7. 
8 

10 in 
1 



1 

8 

11 ill 

1 

8 

i 

3 



20-420 

20 813 

21 205 
21-598 
21 991 
22-383 
22776 
23-169 
23 562 
23954 
24-347 
24-740 
25 132 
25 515 
25-918 
26-310 
26-703 
27-096 
27-489 
27-881 
28-274 
28-667 
29-059 
29-452 
29-845 
30-237 

30 630 

31 023 
31 416 
31 808 
32-201 
:^2 594 
32986 
33379 

33 772 
34164 

34 557 

34 950 

35 343 
35^735 
36- 128 
36521 
36-913 
37-306 



Area. in. 



33183 
34-471 
35-784 
37122 
38-484 
39^871 
41-282 
42718 
44^178 
45-663 
47173 
48^707 
50^265 
51-848 
53 456 
55-088 
56-745 
58 426 
60-132 
61-862 
63617 
65-396 
67-200 
69-029 
70-882 
72-:59 
74^»i62 
76-588 
78 540 
80^515 
82 516 
84-540 
86^590 
8-^664 
90 762 
92 885 
95033 
97 205 
99-402 
101-623 
103 869 
106139 
108 434 
110 753 



Gallons. 



1-72552 
1-79249 
1-S6077 
193 34 

2-00117 
2-07329 
2 14666 
222134 
2.29726 
2-37448 
2^45299 
2 53276 
2-61378 
2-(i9609 

2 77971 
2-86458 
2-95074 
303815 
3^1 2686 
321682 
3^30808 
340059 
3-49440 
3-58951 
3-68586 

3 78347 
3-88242 
3-98258 
4-08408 
4-18678 
429083 
4-39608 
4-50268 
4-61053 
4-71962 
4-82846 
4-94172 
505466 
5 16890 
5 28439 
540119 
5 51923 
5-63857 
5-75916 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



43 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, AND 

THE CONTENT IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 

[Area in Feet.] 



Diam. 


Circ. 


Area in fi. 


Gallons. ' 


1 Diam.f Circ. 


Area in fi. Gallons. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 




1 ft. in depth 


Ft. 


In. 'Ft. In. 




1ft. iiidepih 






3 If 


•7854 


5-8735 




6; 14 If 


15-9043 


118-9386 




1 


3 4l 


.9217 


6-8928 




7 14 ^f 


16-4986 


123-3830 




2 


3 8 


1-0690 


7-9944 




814 7| 


17-1041 


127-9112 




3 


3 11 


1 2271 


9-1766 




914 11 


17-7205 


1325209 




4 


4 2^ 
4 5| 
4 8i 


1-3962 


104413 




1015 2^ 


18 3476 


1372105 




5 


1 5761 


11-7866 




11 15 H 


18-9858 


142-0582 




6 


1-7671 


13 2150 














7 


4 114 


1-9689 


14 7241 


5 




15 Si 


19-6350 


146-8384 




8 


5 2| 


2-1816 


16-3148 


5 


1 


15 111 

16 2J 


20-2947 


151-7718 




9 


5 61 


2-4052 


17-9870 


5 


2 


20-9656 


156-7891 




10 


5 9 


2 6398 


19-7414 


5 


3 


16 5| 


21-6475 


161 8886 




11 


6 2| 


2 8852 


21-4830 


5 


4 


16 9 


22 3400 


1670674 












5 


5 


17 Oi 


23 0437 


1723300 


2 




6 3| 


31416 


23-4940 


5 


6 


17 3| 


23 7583 


177-6740 


2 


1 


6 6^ 


3-4087 


25-4916 


5 


7 


17 6| 


24-4835 


183-0973 


2 


2 


2 ^t 


3 6869 


27 5720 


5 


8 


17 9| 

18 0.^ 


25-2199 


188-6045 


2 


3 


7 of 


3-9760 


29 7340 


5 


9 


25-9672 


194 1930 


2 


4 


7 33 


4-2760 


32-6976 


5 


10 


18 31 


26-7251 


199-8610 


2 


5 


7 7 


4-5869 


34-3027 


5 


11 


18 71 


27-4943 


205-6133 


2 


6 


7 lOi 


49087 


36-7092 












2 


7 


8 If 


5-2413 


39 1964 












2 


8 


8 4i 


5-5850 


41 7668 


6 




18 101 


28 2744 


211-4472 


2 


9 


8 74 


5-9395 


44-4179 


6 


8 


19 74 


30-6796 


229-4342 


2 


10 


8 10| 


6-3049 


471505 


6 


6 


20 41 

21 2| 


33 1831 


248-1564 


2 


11 


» IJ 


6-6813 


49-9654 


6 


9 


35-7847 


267-6122 


3 




9 5 


70686 


52-8618 


7 




21 111 


38-4846 


287-8032 


3 


1 


9 8i 


7-4666 


558382 


|7 


3 22 9i 


41 2825 


308-7270 


3 


2 


9 11| 


7 8757 


58-8976 


17 


6 23 6% 


441787 


330-3859 


3 


3 


10 2j 


8-2957 


62 0386 


7 


9 24 4i 


47 1730 


352-7665 


3 


4 


10 5| 

10 8i 


8-7265 


65 2602 












3 


5 


9-1683 


68 5193 


8 




25 li 


50 2656 


375-9062 


3 


6 


10 111 


96211 


73-1504 


8 


3 25 11 


53 4562 


399-7668 


3 


7 


11 3' 


100846 


75-4166 


'18 


626 8| 


56-7451 


4243625 


3 


8 


11 6i 
11 9| 


10-5591 


78-9652 


8 


9 27 5| 


60 1321 


449-2118 


3 


9 


11-0446 


82 5959 










3 


10 


12 5| 


11-5409 


86 3074 


9 


28 3i 


636174 


475-7563 


3 


1] 


12 3| 


120481 


90 1004 


l9 


3 29 Of 


67-2007 


502-5536 










9 


6 29 10| 


70-8823 


530-0861 






12 6| 


12-5664 


93 9754 


9 


9,30 7i 


74-6620 


558 3522 




1 


12 91 


13-(J952 


97-9310 














2 


13 1' 


13-6353 


101-9701 


10 




31 5 


78-5400 


587 3534 




3 


13 41 
13 7| 


14-1862 


103 0300 


10 


3'32 2| 
632 Hi 


82-5160 


617-0876 




4 


14-7479 


110 2907 


10 


8S-5903 


6475568 


\^ 


5 


13 lOi 


15-3206 


1145735 


10 


9!33 9^ 


90-7627 


678-2797 



44 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUJIFEKE.N'CES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Dit 


m. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Ft. In. Ft. In 




] fi. in depih 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 




1ft. in depth 


n 34 6i 


950334 


7HI-6977I 


21 




65 llf 


346-3614 


2590 2290 


11 3 35 4^ 


99-4021 


743-3686 


21 


3 


66 9 


354-6571 


2652 2532 


11 6 


36 U 


1()3-8691 


776-7746 


21 


6 


67 64 


363-0511 


27150413 


11 9 


36 101 


108-4342 


810 9143 


21 


9 


68 31 


371-5432 


2778-5486 


12 


37 Sf 


113-0976 


848 1890 


22 




69 IJ 


380 1336 


2842-7910 


12 3 


38 5| 


117-8590 


881 3966 


22 


3 


69 l{):i 


888-8220 


2907-7664 


12 6 


39 3^ 


122 7187 


917 7395 


22 


6 


70 Si 


397-6087 


2973-4889 


12 9 


40 Of 


127-6765 


954-8159 


22 


9 


71 ^ 


406-4935 


3039-9209 


13 


40 10 


132-7326 


992-627-1 


23 




72 3 


415-4766 


3107-1001 


13 3 


41 74 


137 8867 


103M719 


23 


3 


73 04 


424-5577 


3175-0122 


13 6 


42 4^ 


143-1391 


1070-4514 


23 


6 


73 91 


433-73T1 


3243-6595 


13 9 


43 2i 


148-4896 


1108-0645 


23 


9 


74 li 


443-0146 


3313 0403 


14 


43 111 


153-9384 


1151-2129 


24 




75 4| 


4523904 


33831563 


14 3 


44 9i 


1594852 


1192-6940 


24 


3 


76 2J 


461-8642 


3454-0051 


14 6 


45 6f 


165-1303 


1234 9104 


24 


6 


76 llf 


471-4363 


35255929 


14 9 


46 4 


170-8735 


12778615 


24 


9 


77 9 


481-1065 


3597-906S 


15 


47 14 


176-7150 


1321-5454 


25 




78 6| 


490-8750 


3670-9596 


15 3 


47 101 


182 6545 


1365-9634 


25 


3 


79 3| 

80 \i 


500-7415 


3744-7452 


15 6 


43 8i 


188 6923 


1407-5165 


25 


6 


510-7063 


3819-2657 


15 9 


49 5| 


194-8282 


14570032 


25 


9 


80 102 


520 7692 


3894-5203 


16 


50 3| 


201-0624 


1503 6250 


26 




81 8| 


530-9304 


3970-5098 


16 3 


51 04 


207 3946 


1550 9797 


26 


3 


82 oi 


5411896 


4047-2322 


16 6 


51 10 


213-8251 


1599.0696 


26 


6 


83 3 


551-5471 


4124-6898 


16 9 


52 7| 


220-3537 


1647-8930 


26 


9 


84 0| 


562 0027 


42029610 


17 


53 41 


226-9806 


1697 4516 


27 




84 91 

85 8| 


572 5566 


4281-8072 


17 3 


54 2^ 


233 7055 


1747-7431: 


27 


3 


583 2085 


4361-4664 


17 6 


54 llf'240 52.S7 


1 798 7698 


27 


6 


S6 4|' 593-9587 


4441-8607 


17 9 


55 9| 


247 4500 


1850 5301 


27 


9 


87 21 


604-8070 


4522-9886 


13 


06 64 


254-4698 


1903-02o4 


28 




87 Uh 


615-7536 


4604 8517 


18 3 


57 4 


261 5872 


1956-2537 


28 


3 


88 9"^ 


626-7982 


4686-4876 


18 6 


58 If 


268 8031 


2010 2171 


28 


6 


89 6| 


637-9411 


4770-7787 


IS 9 


58 103 


276 1171 


2064 9140 


28 


9 


90 33 


649-1821 


4854 8434 


19 


59 8i 


2^3-5294 


2120-3462 


29 




91 li 


660-5214 


4939-6432 


19 3 


60 ^ 


■^91-03;)7 


2176 5113 


29 


3 


91 10JJ671-95S7 


5025-1759 


19 6 


61 3k 


2936483 


2233 2914 


29 


6|92 8i; 683 4943 


5111 4487 


19 9 


62 04 


306 355!) 


22910452 


29 


9 


93 54 


695 1280 


5198-4451 


20 


62 91 

63 1 

64 41 


314-1600 


2349 4141 


30 




94 21 

95 0| 
95 9: 


706-8600 


5286-1818 


20 3 


322 0630 


24085159 


30 


3 


718-6900 


5374 6512 


20 6 


3300643 


2468-3528 


30 


6 


730-6183 


5463855S 


^0 9 


165 2i 


333- 1637 '2528 9233 


30 


9I96 7^1742-6447 '5553 7940 



CAMCitY OP CANS IN GALLONS. 



45 



CAPACITY OF CANS ONE INCH DEEP. 

UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 

Required the contents of a vessel, diameter 6 7-Wths inches, deptn 10 inches'? 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and G and l-Wths inches diameter contains 
JO (hundredths) of a gallon, thcp .15 y^ ]Q = 1 50 or 1 gallon and 2 quarts. 

Required thj contents of a can, diameter 19 S-lOihs inches, depih 30 inches ? 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 19 and 8-\Uths inches diameter contain! 
1 gallon and .33 (hundredths), then 133 X 30 = 39.90 or nearly 40 gallons. 

Required the depth of a can whose diameter is 12 and 2-10i/i5 inches, to con- 
tain 16 gallons. 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 12 and 2-\0ths inches diameter or ntaini 
.50 (hundredths of a gallon), then 16 -4- .50 z= 32 mches the depth required, viz : 
.50 ) 16 ( 32 X -50 = 16 gallons. 



Diam- 


1 1 


2 1 3 1 4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


eter. 




T(J 


TO- ' TCF 1 


TJ 


TO 


To 


T(T 


TU 


T(J 


3 


.03 


.03 


.03 


.03 


.03 


.04 


.04 


.04 


.04 


.05 


4 


.05 


.05 


.05 


.05 


.06 


.06 


.07 


.07 


.07 


.03 


5 


.08 


.08 


.08 


.09 


.09 


.10 


.10 


.11 


.11 


.11 


6 


.12 


.12 


.12 


.13 


.13 


.14 


.14 


.15 


.15 


.16 


7 


.16 


.17 


.17 


.18 


.18 


.19 


.19 


.20 


.20 


.21 


8 


.21 


.22 


.22 


.23 


.23 


.24 


.25 


.25 


.26 


.26 


9 


.27 


.28 


!28 


.29 


.30 


.30 


.31 


.31 


.32 


.33 


10 


.34 


.34 


.35 


.36 


.36 


.37 


.38 


.38 


.39 


.40 


11 


.41 


.41 


.42 


.43 


.44 


.44 


.45 


.46 


.47 


.48 


12 


.48 


.49 


.50 


.51 


.52 


.53 


.53 


.54 


.55 


.56 


13 


.57 


.58 


.59 


.60 


.60 


.61 


.62 


.63 


.64 


.65 


14 


.66 


.67 


.63 


.69 


.70 


.71 


.72 


.73 


,74 


.75 


15 


.76 


.77 


.78 


.79 


.80 


.81 


.82 


.83 


.84 


.85 


16 


.87 


.88 


.89 


.90 


.91 


.92 


.93 


.94 


.95 


.97 


17 


.98 


.99 


1.005 


1.017 


1.028 


1.040 


1.051 


1.063 


1.075 


1.0=^6 


18 


1.101 


1.113 


1.125 


1.138 


1.150 


1.162 


1.170 


1.187 


1.200 


1.211 


19 


1.227 


1.240 


1.253 


1 2b6 


1.279 


1.292 


1 304 


1317 


1.330 


1.343 


20 


1.360 


1.373 


1.385 


1.400 


1.414 


1.423 


1.441 


1.455 


1.478 


1.482 


21 


1.499 


1.513 


1.527 


l.n42 


1.556 


1.570 


1.585 


1.600 


1612 


1.630 


22 


1.645 


1.660 


1.675 


1.696 


1.705 


1.720 


1.735 


1 750 


1.770 


1.780 


23 


1.798 


1.814 


1. 830 


1.845 


1.S61 


1.876 


1.892 


1.908 


1.923 


1.940 


24 


1.958 


1.974 


1.991 


2.007 


2.023 


2.040 


2.0.36 


2.072 


2.096 


2.105 


25 


2.125 


2.142 


2.159 


2.176 


2.193 


2.210 


2 227 


2.244 


2.261 


2.280 


26 


2.29S 


2.316' 


2.333 


2.351 


2.369 


2.386 


2 404 


2.422 


2.440 


2.460 


27 


2.478 


2.496 


2.515 


2.533 


2.552 


2.570 


2.588 


2.607 


2.625 


2.643 


28 


2.665 


2.684 


2.703 


2.722 


2.741 


2.764 


2 7S0 


2.800 


2.820 


2.836 


29 


2.859 


2.879 


2.898 


2.918 


2.938 


2.958 


2.977 


2.997 


3.017 


30.36 


30 


3.060 


3.080 


3.100 


3.121 


3.141 


3.162 


3.182 


3.202 


3.223 


3.245 


31 


3.267 


3.288 


3.309 


3.330 


3.351 


3.372 


3.393 


3 414 


3.436 


3.457 


32 


3.481 


3.503 


3.524 


3.543 


3.568 


3.590 


3.612 


3.633 


3.655 


3.689 


33 


3.702 


3.725 


3.747 


3.773 


3.795 


3.814 


3.837 


3 860 


3-882 


3.904 


34 


3.930 


3.953 


3.976 


4.003 


4.022 


4.046 


4.070 


4.092 


4.115 


4.140 


35 


4.165 


4.188 


4.212 


4.236 


4.260 


4.284 


4 307 


4.331 


4.355 


4 380 


36 


4.406 


4.430 


4.455 


4.483 


4.503 


4.528 


4.553 


4.577 


4602 


4.626 


37 


4.654 


4.679 


4.704 


4.730 


4.7.55 


4.780 


4.805 


4.834 


4.855 


4.880 


38 


4.909 


4.935 


4.961 


4.987 


5.012 5.038 


5.064 


5.090 


5.120 


5.142 


39 


5.171 


5.197 


5.224 


5.250 


5.277,5.304 


15 330 


5.357 


5.383 


5.410 


40 


5.440 


U.t67, 


5.491 


5.521 


5.54815.576 


,5 603 


5.630 


5.657 


5.684 



46 CRYSTALLIZED flN-PLAffe. 



CRYSTALLIZED TIN-PLATE. 

Crystallized tin-plate, is a variegated primrose appearance, pro* 
duced upon the surface of tin-plate, by applying to it in a heated statt 
Bome dilute nitro-muriatic acid for a few seconds, then washing it with 
water, drying, and coating it with lacker. The figures are more or 
less beautiful and diversified, according to the degree of heat, and 
relative dilution of the acid. Place the tin-plate, slightly heated, 
over a tub of water, and rub its surfiice with a sponge dipped in a 
liquor composed of four parts of aquafortis, and two of distilled water, 
holding one part of common salt or sal ammoniac in solution. When- 
ever the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly brought out, the 
plate must be immersed in water, washed either with a feather or a 
little cotton (taking care not to rub otf the film of tin that forms the 
feathering) , forthwith dried with a low heat, and coated with a lacker 
varnish, otherwise it loses its lustre in the air. If the whole surface 
is not plunged at once in cold water, but if it be partially cooled by 
sprinkling water on it, the crystallization will be finely variegated 
with large and small figures. Similar results will be obtained by 
blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned surface, while it is just 
passing from the fused to the solid state. 



TINNING. 

1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper, boiled with a solution of 
stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the 
course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer of pure 
tin. — 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin 
filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In the above way, 
chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly 
tinned. 



NEW TINNING PROCESS. 

The articles to be tinned are first covered with dilute sulphuric 
acid, and when quite clean are placed in warm water, then dipped 
in a solution of muriatic acid, copper and zinc, and then plunged into 
a tin bath to which a small quantity of zinc has been added. When 
the tinning is finished, the articles are taken out and plunged into 
boiling water. The operation is completed by placing them in a very 
warm sand bath. This last process softens the iron. 



KUSTITIEN'S METAL FOR TINNING. 

Malleable iron 1 pound, heat to whiteness ; add 5 ounces reguluf 
of antimony, and Molucca tin 24 pounds. 



I^ECEIPTS 

FOR THE USE OF 

JAPANNERS, VARNISHERS, 

BUILDERS AND MECHANICS, 

AND FOR 

OTHER USEFUL AND IMPORTANT PURPOSES 

IN THK 

PRACTICAL ARTS. 



PllACTlCAL RECEIPTS. 



(Tk : following Receipts are selected from " Ure's Dictionary," " Cooley'w Cy- 
clopedia," " Muspralt*s Cliemisiry," and other valuable sourcei.] 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 

Japanning is tlie art of covering bodies by grounds of opaque 
colors in varnish, wiiich may be afterwards decorated by printing 
or gilding, or left in a plain state. It is also to be looked upon in 
another sense, as that of ornamenting coaches, snuff boxes, screens, 
&c. All surfaces to be japanned must be perfectly clean, and 
leather siiould be stretched on frames. Paper should be stiff for 
japanning. 

The French prime all their japanned articles, the English do 
not. This priming is generally of common size. Those articles 
that are primed tlius, never endure as well as those that receive the 
japan coating on the first operation, and thus it is that those 
articles of japan work that are primed with size when they are used 
for some time, crack, and the coats of japan fly off in flakes. 

A solution of strong isinglass size and honey, or sugar candy, 
makes a good japan varnish to cover water colors on gold grounds. 

A pure white priming for japanning, for the cheap method, is 
made with parchment size, and one- third of isinglass, laid on very 
thin and smooth. It is the better for three coats, and when the last 
coat is dry, it is prepared to receive the painting or figures. Pre- 
vious to the last coat, however, the work should be smoothly polish- 
ed. When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming used, 
the best plan is to lay on two or three coats of varnish made of 
seed-lac and resin, two ounces each, dissolved in alcohol and 
strained through a cloth. This varnish should be put on in a warm 
place, and the work to be varnished should, if possible, be warm 
also, and all dampness should be avoided, to prevent the varnish 
from being chilled. When the work is prepared with the above 
composition and dry, it is fit for the proper japan to be laid on. If 
the ground is not to be white the best varnish now to be used is made 
of shellac, as it is the best vehicle for all kind of colors. This is 
made in the proportions of the best shellac, five ounces, made intn 
powder, steeped in a quart of alcohol, and kept at a gentle heat for 
two or three days and shaken frequently, after which the solution 
6 



56 JAPANNING AND VAtlNlSlttNG. 

must be filtered through a flannel bag, and kept in a well corked bot- 
tle for use. This varnish for hard japanning on copper or tin will 
stand for eve^, unless fire or hammer be used to burn or beetle it off. 
The color to be used with shellac varnish may be of any pigments 
whatever to give the desired shade, as this varnish will mix with 
any color. 

WHITE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

To form a hard, perfect white ground is no easy matter, as the 
substances which are generally used to make the japan hard, have a 
tendency, by a number of coats, to look or become dull in bright- 
ness. One white ground is made by the following composition : 
white flake or lead washed over and ground up with a sixth of its 
weight of starch, then dried and mixed with the finest gum, ground 
up in parts of one ounce gum, to half an ounce of rectified turpentine 
mixed and ground thoroughly together. This is to be finely laid en 
the article to be japanned, dried, and then varnished with five or six 
eoats of the following : two ounces of the whitest seed-lac to three 
ounces of gum-anima reduced to a fine powder and dissolved in a 
quart of alcohol. This lac must be carefully picked. For a softer 
varnish than this, a little turpentine should be added, and less of the 
gum. A very good varnish and not brittle, may be made by dis- 
solving gum-anima in nut oil, boiling it gently as the gum is added, 
and giving the oil as much gum as it will take up. The ground of 
white varnish may of itself be made of this varnish, by giving two 
©r three coats of it, but when used it should be diluted with pure 
turpentine. Although this varnish is not brittle it is liable to be in- 
dented with strokes, and it will not bear to be polished, but if well 
laid on it will not need polishing afterwards ; it also takes some time 
to dry. Heat applied to all oils, however, darkens their color, 
and oil varnishes for white grow very yellow if not exposed to a fiiD 
clear light. 

GUM COPAL. 

Copal varnish is one of the very finest varnishes for japanning 
purposes. It can be dissolved by linseed oil, rendered dry by adding 
Bome quicklime at a heat somewhat less than will boil or decompose 
the oil by it. 

This solution, with the addition of a little turpentine, forms a 
very transparent varnish, which, when properly applied and slowly 
dried is very hard and durable. This varnish is applied to snuff 
boxes, tea boards and other utensils. It also preserves paintings 
and renders their surfaces capable of reflecting light more uniformly. 

If powdered copal be mixed in a mortar with camphor, it softens 
and becomes a coherent mass, and if camphor be added to alcohol it 
becomes an excellent solvent of copal by adding the copal well 
ground, and employing a tolerable degree of heat, having the 
vessel well corked which must have a long neck for the allowance of 
expansion, and the vessel must only be about one-fourth filled with 
the mixture. Copal can also be incorporated with turpentine, with 
one part of powdered copal to twelve parts of pure turpentine, sub- 



JAl* ANTING AND VATtNtSttit^G. 51 

jected to the heat of a sand-bath for several days in a long necked 
mattress, shaking it frequently. 

Copal is a good varnish for metals, such as tin; the varnish 
must be dried in an oven, each coat, and it can be colored with som« 
substances, but alcohol varnish will mix with any coloring matter 
For white japans or varnishes, we have already shown that fine 
chalk or white lead was used as a basis, and the varnishes coated 
over it. 

To jxpan or varnish white leather, so that it maybe elastic, is 
altogether a different work from varnishing or japanning wood or 
metal, or papier mache. 

For white leather oil is the prlnsipal ingredient, as it is well 
known that chalk is extensively used to give white leather its pure 
color, or speaking more philosophically, its fair colorless whiteness. 
White leather having already the basis of white varnish, it should 
get a light coat of the pure varnish, before mentioned, and dried 
well in the oven, or a coat of the oil copal will answer very well. This 
being well dried, boiled nut oil nicely coated and successively dried, 
will make a most beautiful white varnish for leather, not liable to 
crack. This quality takes a long time to dry, and of course is more 
expensive. Coarse varnish may be made of boiled linseed oil, into 
which is added gradually the acetate of lead as a drier. This addi- 
tion must be done very cautiously as the oil will be apt to foam over. 

A better and more safe drying mixture than the mere acetate 0/ 
lead, is, to dissolve the acetate of lead in a small quantity of water, 
neutralize the acid with the addition of pipe clay, evaporate the 
sediment to perfect dryness, and feed the oil when gently boiling 
gradually with it. 

These varnishes or japans, as far as described, have only ref. 
erence to white grounds. 

There is some nice work to be observed, and there is much in 
applying the varnishes at the right time, knowing by the eye the 
proper moment when the mixture is perfect, or when to add any in- 
gredient. These things require practice. 

BLACK GROUNDS. 

Black grounds for japans may be made by mixing ivory black 
with shellac varnish ; or for coarse work, lamp black and the top 
coating of common seedlac varnish. A common black japan may 
be made by painting a piece of work with drying oil, (oil mixed 
with lead,) and putting the work into a stove, not too hot, but 
of such a degree, gradually raising the heat and keeping it up 
for a long time, so as not to burn the oil and make it blister. 
This process makes very fair japan and requires no polishing. 

BLACK JAPAN. 

Naples asphaltura fifty pounds, dark gum-anime eight pounds, fuse., 
add linseed oil twelve gallons, boil, add dark gum amber ten pounds, 
previously fused and boiled with linseed oil two gallons, add the 
driers, and proceed as last. Used for wood or metals. 



52 jxii^ANNiNG Aj^rb vAnNtsiiii^a. 



BRUNSWICK BLACK. 

1. Foreign asplialtum forty-five pounds, drying oil six galloDI^ 
litharge six pounds, boll as last, and thin with twenty-five gallons 
of oil of turpentine. Used for ironwork, &c. 2. Black pitch and 
gas tar asphaltum, of each twenty-five pounds, boil gently for five 
hours, then add linseed oil eight gallons, litharge and red lead, of 
each ten pounds, boil as before, and thin with oil of turpentine twen- 
ty gallons. Inferior to the last, but cheaper. 

BLUE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

Blue japan grounds may be formed of bright Prussian blue. 
The color may be mixed with shellac varnish, and brought to a pol- 
ishing state by five or six coats of yarnish of seed-lac. The varnish, 
however, is apt to give a greenish tinge to the blue, as the yarnish 
has a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow form a green. Whenever 
a light blue is desired, the purest varnish must always be used. 

SCARLET JAPAN. 

Ground vermilion may be used for this, but being so glaring it 
is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink, or lake, Vthich 
haye a good eifect when thus used. For a yery bright crimson 
ground, safilower or Indian lake should be used, always dissolved in 
the alcohol of which the varnish is made. In place of this lake, 
carmine may be used, as it is more common. The top coat of var- 
nish must always be of the white seed-lac, which has been before 
described, and as many coats given as will be thought proper ; it is 
easy to judge of this. 

YELLOW GROUNDS. 

If turmeric be dissolved in the spirit of wine and strained 
through a cloth, and then mixed with pure seed-lac yarnish, it makes 
a good yellow japan. Saffron will answer for the same purpose in 
the same way, but the brightest yellow ground is made by a primary 
coat of pure crome yellow, and coated successively with the yarnish. 

Dutch pink is used for a kind of cheap yellow japan ground. If 
a little dragon's blood be added to the varnish for yellow japan, a 
most beautiful and rich salmon-colored varnish is the result, and by 
these two mixtures all the shades of flesh-colored japans are produced. 

GRE3N JAPAN GROUNDS. 

A good green may be made by mixing Prussian blue along with 
the cromate of lead, or with turmeric, or orpiment, (sulphuret of 
arsenic) or ochre, only the two should be ground together and dis- 
solved in alcohol and applied as a ground, then coated with four or 
five coats of shellac varnish, in the manner already described. A 
very bright green is made by laying on a ground of Dutch metal, or 
leaf of gold, and then coating it over with distilled verdigris dissolved 
in alcohol, then the varnishes on the top. This is a splendid green, 
brilliant and glowing. 



JAPANNING AND VARNIibHING. 53 

ORANGE COLOUED GROUNDS. 

Orange grounds miy be mide of yellow mixed with vermilion 
or carmine, jast as a bright or rather inferior color is wanted. The 
yellow should always be in quantity to make a good full color, anl 
the red added in proportion to the depth of shade. If there is 
not a good full body of yellow, the color will look watery, or bare, as 
it is technically termed. 

PURPLE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

This is made by a mixture of lake anl Prussian blue, or oar- 
mine, or for an inferior color vermilion, and treated as the foregoing. 
When the ground is laid on and perf33tly dried, a fine coat of pure 
boiled nut oil then laid on and perfectly dried, is a good method to 
have a japan, not liable to cra3k. 13 at a better plan is to use 
this oil in the varnish given, the first coat, after the ground is laid 
on, and which should contain considerable of pure turpentine. In 
every case where oil is used for any purpose for varnish, it is all the 
better if turpentine is mixed with it. Turpentine enables oils to 
mix with either alcohol or water. Alkalies have this property also. 

BLACK JAPAN. 

1. Asphaltum three ounces, boiled oil four quarts, burnt umber 
eight ounces. Mix by heat, and when cooling thin with turpentine. 
2. Amber twelve ounces, asphaltum two ounces ; fuse by heat, add 
boiled oil half a pint, resin two ounces ; when cooling add sixteen 
ounces oil of turpentine. Both are used to varnish metals. 

JAPAN BLACK FOR LEATHER. 

1. Burnt umber four ounces, true asphaltum two ounces, boiled 
oil two quarts. Dissolve the asphaltum by heat in a little of the oil, 
adl the burnt umber ground in o'd, and the remainder of the oil, 
mix, cool, and thin with turpentine. Flexible. 2. Shellac one part, 
wood naphtha four parts, dissolve, and color with lampblack. In- 
flexible. 

TR.VNSPARENT JAPAN. 

Oil of turpentine four ounces, oil of lavender three ounces, cam- 
phor one-half drachm, copal one ounce ; dissolve. Used to japan 
tiriy but quick copal varnish is mostly used instead. 

JAPANNERS' COPAL VARNISH. 

Pale African copal seven pounds, fuse, add clarified linseed oil one 
half gallon, boil for five minutes, remove it into the open air, add 
boiling oil of turpentine three gallons, mix well, strain it into the cis- 
tern, and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furniture, and 
by japanners, coachmakers, &c. Dries in 15 minutes, and mav b^ 
polished as soon as hard. 
5^ 



54 JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 



TORTOISE SHELL JAPAN. 

This varnisli is prepared by taking of good linseed oil one gal- 
loD, and of umber half a pound, and boiling them together untO 
the oil becomes very brown and thick, when they are strained 
through a cloth and boiled again until the composition is about 
the consistence of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having prepared 
this varnish, clean well the copper ot iron plate or vessel that is 
to be varnished, (japanned,) and then lay vcrmilKon, mixed with 
shellac varnish, or w^ith drying cil, diluted with turpentine, \erj 
thinly en the places intended to imitate the clean parts of the 
tortoise shell. When the vermillion is dry brush over the whole with 
the above umber varnish diluted to a due consistence with tur- 
pentine, and when it is set and firm, it must be put into a stove 
and undergo a strong heat for a long time, even two weeks will 
not hurt it. This is the ground for these beautiful snuff boxes 
and tea boards which are so much admired, and those grounds can 
be decorated with all kinds of paintings that fancy may suggest, 
and the work is all the better to be finished in an annealing 



PAINTING JAPAN WORK. 

The colors to be painted are tempered, generally, in oil, which 
should have at least one-fourth of its weight of gum sandarach, or 
mastic dissolved in it, and it should be well diluted with tui-pen- 
tine, that the colors may be laid on thin and evenly. In some 
instances it does well to put on water colors or grounds of gold, 
which a skilful hand can do and manage so as to make the work 
appear as if it was embossed. These water colors are best pre- 
pared by means of isinglass size, mixed with honey, or sugar candy. 
These colors when laid on must receive a number of upper coats 
of the varnish we have described before. 

JAPANNING OLD TEA-TRAYS. 

First clean them thoroughly with soap and water and a little rotten 
stone ; then dry them by wiping and exposure at the fire. Now, get 
some good copal varnish, mix with it some bronze powder, and apply 
with a brush to the denuded parts. After which set the tea-tray in 
an oven at a heat of 212^ or 300*^ until the varnish is dry. Two coats 
will make it equal to new. 

JAPAN FINISHING. 

The finishing part cf japanning lies in laying on and polishing the 
outer coats of varnish, which is necessary in all painted or simply 
ground colored japan work. AVhcn brightness and clearness are 
wanted, the white kind cf varnish is necessary, for seed-lac varnish, 
which is the hardest and most tenacious, imparts a yellow tinge. 
A mixed varnish, we believe, is the best for this purpose, that is, for 
eombiuing hai'ducss and purity. Take then three ounces of sced-Iac, 



VARNISHES 55 

picked very carefully from all sticks anJ dirt and washing it well 
with cold water, stirring it up, pouring it oif, and continuing the 
pro3ess until the water runs off porfoctly pure. Dry it and then 
reduce it to powder, and put it with a pint of pure abohol into a 
bottle, of which it must ojcupy only two-thirds of its space. This 
mixture must be shaken well together and the bottle kept at a gentle 
heat (being corked) until the la3 be dissolved. When this is the 
case, the clear must be poured off, and the remainder strained through 
a cloth, anl all the cleir, strained an;l poured, must be kept in a well 
stopped bottle. The manner of using this seed-Lic varnish is the 
same as that before described, and a tine polishing varnish is 
made by mixing this with the pure white varnish. The pieces 
of work to be varnished for finishing should be placed neara 
stove, or in a warm, dry room, and one coat should be perfectly 
dry before the other is applied. The varnish is applied by proper 
brushes, beginning at the middle, p issing the stroke to one end and 
with the other stroke from the middle to the other end. Great skill 
is d!spliyed in laying on these coats of varnish. If possible the skill 
of band should never cross, or twice pass over in giving one coat. 
When one coat is dry another must be laid over it, and so on succes- 
sively for a number of coats, so that the coating should be suJiciently 
thick to stanl fully all the polishing, so as not to bare the surface of 
the colored work. W'hen a sutticlent number of coats are thus laid 
on, the work is fit to be polished, which, in common cases, is com- 
menced with a rag dipped in finely powdered rotten stone, and 
tow irds the end of the rubbing a little oil should be used along with 
the powder, and when the work appears fine and glossy a little oil 
should be used alone to clean off the powder and give the work a 
stiil brighter hue. In xerj fine work, French whiting should be used, 
which should be washed in water to remove any sind that might be 
in it. Pumice stone ground to a very fine powder is used for the 
first part of polishing, and the finishing done with whiting. It is 
always best to dry the varnish of all japan work by heat. For 
wood work, lieat must be sparingly used, but for metals the varnish 
should be dried in an oven, also for papier mache and leather. The 
metal will stand the greatest heat, and care must be taken not to 
darken by too high a temperature. When gold size is used in gil l- 
ing for japan Avork, where it is desired not to have the gold shine, 
or appear burnished, the gold size should be used with a little of the 
spirits of turpentine and a little oil, but when a considerable degree 
of lustre is wanted without burnishing and the preparation neces- 
sary for it, a little of the size along with oil alone should be used. 



VARNISHES, — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Different substances are employed for making varnish, the object 
being to produce a liquid easily applied to the surfice of cloth, 
paper or metal, which, when dry, will protect it with a fiue &Uu. 



56 VARNISHES. 

Gums and resins are the substances employed for making varnishes^ 
they are dissolved either in turpentine, alcohol, or oil, in a close 
stone ware, glass or metal vessel, exposed to a low heat, as the case 
may require, or cold. The alcohol or turpentine dissolves the gum 
or resin, and holds them in solution, and after the application of 
the varnish, this mixture being mechanical, the moisture of the 
liquid evaporates, and the gum adheres to the article to which it is 
applied. 



The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to the varnisb- 
ra iker. Od from fine fall-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a vial, 
will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; it is mellow and sweet to the 
taste, has very little smell, is specifically lighter than impure oil, and, 
when clarified, dries quickly and firmly, and does not materially 
change the color of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and 
brilliant. 



The following are the chief Resins employed in the manufacture of 
Varnishes. 



This resin is most distinguished for durability. It is usually of 
some shade of yellow, transparent, hard, and moderately tough. 
Heated in air, it fuses at about 519^^ ; it burns with a clear flame, 
emitting a pleasant odor. 

ANIME. 

This is imported from the East Indies. The large, transparent, 
pale-yellow pieces, with vitreous fracture, are best suited for var- 
nish. Inferior qualities are employed for manufacturing gold-size or 
japan-black. Although superior to amber in its capacity for drying, 
and equal in hardness, varnish made from anime deepens in color on 
exposure to air, and is very liable to crack. It is, however, much 
used for mixing with copal varnish. 

BENZOIN. 

This is a gum-resin but little used in varnishes, on account of its 
^stliness. 

COLOPHONY. 

This resin is synonymous with arcanson and rosin. When the 
resinous juice of Pinus sijlvestris and other varieties is distilled,, 
colophony remiins in the retort. Its dark color is due to the action 
of the fire. Dissolved in linseed oil, or in turpentine by the aid ol 
heat, colophony forms a brilliant, hard, but brittle varnish, 

COPAL. 

This is a gura-resln of immense importance to the varnish-maker. 
[^ cpQsists of sevex'al minor resins of diiforent degrees of solubility. 



VARNISHES. 57 

Iq durability, it is only second to amber. Wlien made into varnish, 
the better sorts become lighter in color by exposure to air. 

Copal is generally imported in large lumps about the size of pota- 
toes. The clearest and palest are selected for what is called body- 
gum ; the second best forms carriage-gum ; whilst the resld^i.e, freed 
from the many impurities with which it is associated, constitutes 
worst quality i fitted only for japan-black or gold-size. 

In alcohol, copal is but little soluble ; but it is said to become 
more so by reducing it to a fine powder, and exposing it to atmos- 
pheric influences for twelve months. Boiling alcohol or spirit of 
turpentine, when poured u^ob. fused cop:il, accomplishes its complete 
solution, provided the solvent be not added in too large proportions 
at a time. The addition of camphor also promotes the solubility of 
copal ; so likewise does oil of rosemary. 



This is a tasteless, inodorous, whitish resin, easily soluble in oils. 
It is not so hard as mastic, with which it forms a good admixture. 



This is a resin of a yellow color, semi-transparent, and of fxint 
fragrance. Of the two resins which it contains, one is crystallizable 
and soluble in cold alcohol. 

LAC. 

This constitutes the basis of spirit-varnish. The resin is soluble 
in strong alcohol aided by heat. Its solution in ammonia may be 
used as a varnish, when the articles coated with it are not exposed 
more than an hour or two at a time to water. 

MASTIC. 

This is a soft resin of considerable lustre. The two sorts in coro- 
nierce are, in tears and the comwon mastic ; the former is the purer 
of the two. It consists of two resins, one of which is soluble in di- 
lute alcohol. With oil of turpentine, it forms a very pale varnish, 
of great lustre, which flows readily, and works easily. Moreover, it 
can be readily removed by friction with the hand ; hence its use for 
delicate work of every description. 

SANDAKACH. 

This is a pale, odorous resin, less hard than lac, with which it is 
often associated as a spirit-varnish. It consists of three resins differ- 
ing as to solubility in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. It forms a 
good pale varnish for light-colored woods ; when required to be 
polished, Venice turpentine is added to give it body. 

Of the solvents of these various resins, little need be said. In the 
manufacture of varnishes, great care, as well as cleanliness, are re- 
quired. The resins should be washed in hot water, to free them from 
particles of dust and dirt ; they should be dried and assorted accorcU 



58 VARNISHES. 



in<< to their color, reserYing the lightest shades for the Lest kindi; of 

varnish. 

The linseed-oil should be as pale colored, and as well clarified as 
possible. New oil always contains mucilao^e, and more or less of 
foreign matters ; as these prevent the regular absorption of oxygen, 
the oil requires preliminary treatment. The common plan is to boil 
it with litharge ; but such oil varnish is inferior to that prepared 
with sulphate of lead. 

The best method is to rub up linseed-oil with dry sulphate of lead, 
in sufficient quantity to form a milky mixture. After a week's 
exposure to the light, and frequent shaking, the mucus deposits with 
the sulphate of lead, and leaves the oil perfectly clear. The precipi- 
tated slime forms a compact membrane over the lead, hardening to 
such an extent that the clarified oil may be readily poured off. 

TURPENTINE. 

This is of very extensive use. The older it is, the more ozonized, 
the better it is. Turpentine varnishes dry much more readily than 
oil varnishes, are of a lighter color, more flexible and cheap. They 
are, however, neither so tough nor so durable. 

ALCOHOL. 

This is employed as the solvent of sandarach and of lac. The 
Btronger, cceteris paribus, the better. 

NAPHTHA AND METHYLATED SPIRIT OF WINE. 

These are used for the cheaper varnishes. Their smell is disagioe- 
able. The former is, however, a better solvent of resins than alcohol. 

SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

Th s^ varnishes may be readiiy colored — red, by dra2:on's blood ; 
yellow, by sramboge. If a colored varnish is required, cle irly no 
account need be taken of the color of the resins. Lac varnish may 
be bleached by Mr. Lemming's process : - Dissolve five ounces of shel- 
lac in a quart of spirit of wine ; boil for a f w minutes with ten 
ounces of well-burnt and recently-heated animal charcoal, when a 
Bmallquantity of the solution should be drawn off and filtered : if not 
colorless, a little more charcoal should be added. When all tinge is 
removed, press the liquor through silk, as linen absorbs more var- 
nish ; and alterwards filter it through fine blotting-paper. Dr. Hare 
proceeds as follows : — Dissolve in an iron kettle about one part, cf 
pearlash in about eight parts of water, add one part of shell or seed 
lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, ccfd 
the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine gas till the lac is all 
precipitat d. I he precipitate is white, but the color deepens 1 y 
washing and consolidation. Dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached ly 
(his process yields a varnish which is as free from color as any copal 
▼arniyh. 

•Jne wc'i in conclu.<*4or» with i^eference *o all spirit varnishes. A 



VARNISHES. 59 

damp atmosphere is sufficient to occasion a milky deposit of resin, 
owing to the diluted spirit depositing a portion : in such case thf 
varnish is said to be chilled. 

ESSENCE VARNISHES. 

They do not differ essentially in their manufacture from spirit 
varnitilies. The polish produced by them is more durable, although 
tbey take a longer time to dry. 

OIL VARNISHES. 

The most durable and lustrous of varnishes are composed of a mix- 
ture of resin, oil, and spirit of turpentine. The oils most frequently 
employed are linseed and walnut ; the resins chiefly copal and 
a::iber. 

The drying power of the oil having been increased by litharge, 
red-lead, or by sulphate of lead, and a judicious selection of copal 
having been made, it is necessary, according to Booth, to bear in 
mind the following precautions before proceeding to the manufacture 
of varnish : — 1. That oil varnish is not a solution, but an intimate 
mixture of resin in boiled oil and spirit of turpentine. 2. That the 
resin must be completely fused previous to the addition of the boiled 
or prepared oil. 3. That the oil must be heated from 250° to 300°^ 
4. That the spirit of turpentine must be added gradually, and in a 
thin stream, while the mixture of oil and resin is still hot. 5. That 
the varnish be made in dry weather, otherwise moisture is absorbed, 
and its transparency and drying quality impaired. 

The heating vessel must be of copper, with a riveted and not a 
soldered bottom. To promote the admixture of the copal with the 
hot oil, the copal — carefully selected, and of nearly uniform fusibility 
— is separately heated witli continuous stirring over a charcoal fire. 
Good management is required to prevent the copal from burning or 
becoming even high colored. When completely fused, the heated 
oil should be gradually poured in with constant stirring. The exact 
amount of oil required must be determined by experiment. If a drop 
upon a plate, on cooling, assumes such a consistency as to be pene- 
trated by the nail without cracking, the mixture is complete ; but if 
it cracks, more oil must be added. 

The spirit of turpentine joreyzowsZ?/ heated is added in a thin stream 
to the former mixture, care being taken to keep up the heat of all 
the parts. 

LACKER. 

This is used for wood or brass work, and is also a varnish. For 
brass, the proportions are half a pound of pale shell-lac to one gallon 
of spirit of wine. It is better prepared without the aid of heat, by 
simple and repeated agitation. It should then be left to clear itself, 
and separated from the thicker portions and from all impurities by 
decintation. As it darkens on exposure to light, the latter sJiouldbe 
excluded. It need scarcely be said that the color will be also modified 
by that of the lao employed. 



60 VARNISHES. 



1. COPAL VARNISHES. 

1. Oil of turpentine one pint, set the bottle in a water bath, and 
add in small portions at a time, three ounces of powdered copal that 
has been previuusly melted by a gentle heat, and dropped into water ; 
in a few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is very pale and 
durable. Used for pictures, &c. 2. Pale hard copal two pounds ; 
fuse, add hot drying oil one pint, boil as before directed, and thin 
with oil of turpentine three pints, or as much as suflQcient. Very 
pale. Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours. 3. Clearest and palest African 
copal eight pounds ; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil two gallons, 
boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with hot rectified 
oil of turpentine tliree gallons, and immediately strain into the store 
can. Very fine. Both the above are used for pictures. 4. Coarsely- 
powdered copal and glass, of ea^h four ounces, alcohol of 90 per cent 
one pint, camphor one-half ounce ; heat it in a water-bath so that the 
bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing frequently to stir the 
mixture ; when cold decant the clear. Used for pictures. 5. Copal 
melted and dropped into water three ounces, gum sandarach six 
ounces, mastic and Chio turpentine of each two and one-half ounces, 
poAvdered glass four ounces, alcohol of 85 per cent, one quart ; dis- 
solve by a gentle heat. Used for metal, chairs, &c. 

All copal varnishes are hard and durable, though less so than 
those made of amber, but they have the advantage over the latter of 
being paler. They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished metal, 
wood, and other objects requiring good durable varnish. 

2. COPAL VARXISH. 

Hard copal, 300 parts ; drying linseed or nut oil, from 125 to 250 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 500 ; these three substances are to be put 
into three separate vessels ; the copal is to be fused by a somewhat 
sudden application of heat; the drying oil is to be heated to a tem- 
perature a little under ebullition, and is to be added by small 
portions at a time to the melted copal. AVhen this combination is 
made, and the heat a little abated, the essence of turpentine, likewise 
previously heated, is to be introduced by degrees ; some of the vola- 
tile oil will be dissipated at first, but more being added, the union 
will take place. Great care must be taken to prevent the turpentine 
vapor from catching fire, which might occasion serious accidents to 
the operator. When the varnish is made and has cooled down to 
about 130 degrees of Fah., it may be strained through a filter, to 
separate the impurities and undissolved copal. Almost all varnish 
makers think it indispensable to combine the drying oil with the 
copal before adding the oil of turpentine, but in this they are mis- 
taken. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with fused 
copal; and, in some cases, it would probably be preferable to com- 
mence the operation with it, adding it in successive small quantities. 
Indeed, the whitest copal varnish can be made only in this way ; for 
if the drying oil has been heated to nearly its boiling point, it 
bpcomea colored, and darkens the varnish. 



VARNISHES. 61 

This varnish improves in clearness by keeping. Its consistence 
may be varieci by varying the proportions of the ingredients within 
moderate limits. Good varnish, applied in summer, should become 
80 dry in twenty-four hours that the dust will not stick to It nor re- 
ceive an impression from the fingers. To render it sufficiently dry 
and hard for polishing, it must be subjected for several days to the 
heat of a stove. 

3. COPAL VARXISHES. 

1. Melt in an iron pan at a slow heat, copal gum, powdered, eight 
parts, and add balsam copaiva, previously warmed, two parts. Then 
remove from the fire, and add spirits of turpentine, also warmed be- 
forehand, ten parts, to give the necessary consistence. 2. Prepared 
gum copal ten parts, gum mastic two parts, finely powdered, are 
mixed with white turpentine and boiled linseed oil, of each one part, 
at a slow heat, and with spirits of turpentine twenty parts. 3. Pre- 
pared gum-copal ten parts, white turpentine two parts, dissolve in 
spirits of turpentine. 

Gum-copal is prepared or made more soluble in spirits of turpentine, 
by melting the powdered crude gum, afterwards again powdering, 
and allowing to stand for some time loosely covered. 

CABINET VARNISH. 

Copal, fused, fourteen pounds ; linseed oil, hot, one gallon ; tur- 
pentine, hot, three gallons. Properly boiled, such a varnish will dry 
in ten minutes. 

TABLE VARNISH. 

Damma resin, one pound ; spirits of turpentine, two pounds 
camphor, two hundred grains. Digest the mixture for twenty-four 
hours. The decanted portion is fit for immediate use. 

COMMON TABLE VARNISH. 

Oil of turpentine, one pound; bees' wax, two ounces ; colophony, 
one drachm. 

COPAL VARNISH FOR INSIDE WORK. 

1. Pounded and oxidixed copal, twenty-four parts j spirit of tur- 
pentine, forty parts ; camphor, one part. — 2. Flexible Copal Var- 
nish, Copal in powder, sixteen parts; camphor, two parts; oil of 
lavender, ninety parts. 

Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stir in the co- 
pal in sacoessive portions until complete solution takes place. Thin 
with sufficient turpentine to make it of proper consistence. 

BEST BODY COPAL VARNISH FOR COACH MAKERS, &C. 

This is intended for the body parts of coaches and other similar 

vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse eight lbs. of fine African 

gum copal, and two gallons of clarified oil, boil it very slowly for 

four or five hours, until quite stringy, mix with three gallons and a 

G 



62 VARM:^HES. 

half of turpentine ; strain off and pour it into a cistern. If this is 
too slow in drying, coach-makers, painters and varnish-makers have 
introduced to two pots of the preceding varnish, one made as follows : 
eight lbs. of fine pale gum-anime, two gallons of clarified oil and 
three and a half gallons of turpentine. To be boiled four hours. 

COPAL POLISH. 

Digest or shake finely powdered gum copal four parts, and gum 
camphor one part, with ether to form a semi-fluid mass, and then 
digest with a sufficient quantity of alcohol. 

WHITE SPIRIT VARNISH. 

Sandarach, 250 parts ; mastic, in tears, 64 ; elemi resin, 32 ; 
tui'pentine, 64 ; alcohol of 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure. 
The turpentine is to be added after the resins are dissolved. This is 
a brilliant varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing. 

WHITE HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

1. Gum smdarach five pounds, camphor one ounce, rectified spirit 
(65 over proof) two gallons, washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass 
two pounds ; proce-.d as in making mastic varnish ; when strained 
add one qu art of very pale turpentine varnish. Very fine. 2. Picked 
mastic and coarsely-ground glass, of each, four ounces, sandarach 
and pale clear Venice turpentine, of each three ounces, alcohol two 
pounds ; as last. 3. Gum sandarach one pound, clear Strasburgh 
tur[)entine six ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) three pints ; 
diss'jlve. 4. Mastic in tears two ounces, sandarach eight ounces, gum 
elemi one ounce, Strasburgh or Scio turpentine (genuine) four ounces, 
rectified spirit (65 over proof) one quart. Used on metals, &c. 
Polishes well. 

WHITE VARNISH. 

1. Tender copal seven and one-half ounces, camphor one ounce, 
alcohol of 95 per cent, one quart ; dissolve, then add mastic two 
ounces, Venice turpentine one ounce ; dissolve and strain. Very 
white, drying, and capable of being polished when hard. Used for 
toys. 2. Sandarach eight ounces, mastic two ounces, Canada balsam 
four ounces, alcohol one quart. Used on paper, wood, or linen. 

SOFT BRILLIANT VARNISH. 

Sandarach six ounces, elemi (genuine) four ounces, anime one 
ounce, camphor one-half ounce, rectified spi it one quart ; as before. 

The above spirit varnishes are chiefly applied to objects of the toil- 
ette, as work-boxes, card-cases, &c., but are also suitable to other 
articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that require a bril- 
liant and quick-drying varnish. They mostly dry almost as soon as 
applied, and are usually hard enough to polish in 24 hours. Spirit 
varnishes are less durable and more liable to crack than oil varaisheg. 



VARNISHES. 63 



BROWN UARD SPIRIT VARNISUE3. 

1. Sandarach four ounces, pale seed-lac two ounces, elerni (true) 
one ounce, alcohol one quart ; digest with agitation till dissolved, then 
add Venice turpentine two ounces. 2. Gum sandarach three pounds, 
shellac two pounds, rectified spirit, (65 over proof,) two gallons ; dis- 
solve, add turpentine varnish one quart ; agitate well and strain. 
Very fine. 3. Seed-lac and yellow resin, of each one and one-half 
pounds, rectified spirit two gallons. 

TO TREPARE A VARNISH FOR COATING METALS. 

Digest one part of bruised copal in two parts of absolute alcohol ; 
but as this varnish dries too quickly it is preferable to take one part 
of copal, one part of oil of rosemary, and two or three parts of ab- 
solute alcohol. This gives a clear varnish as limped as water. It 
should be applied hot, and when dry it will be found hard and 
durable. 

TO VARNISH ARTICLES OF IRON AND STEEL. 

Dissolve 10 parts of clear grains of mastic, 5 parts of camphor, 15 
parts of sandarach, and 5 of elemi, in a sulficient quantity of alcohol, 
and apply this varnish without heat. The articles will not only be 
preserved from rust, but the varnish will retain its transparency 
and the metallic brilliancy of the articles will not be obscured. 

VARNISH FOR IRON WORK. 

Dissolve, in about two lbs. of tar oil, half a pound of asphaltum, 
and a like quantity of pounded resin , mix hot in an iron kettle, care 
being taken to prevent any contact with the flame. When cold the 
varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door wood and iron 
work, not for japanning leather or cloth. ^ 

BLACK VARNISH FOR IRON WORK. 

Asphaltum forty-eight pounds, fuse, add boiled oil ten gallons, red 
lead and litharge, of each seven pounds, dried and powdered white 
copperas three pounds, boil for two hours, then add dark gum amber 
(fused) eight pounds, hot linseed oil two gallons, boil for two hours 
longer, or till a little of the mass, when cooled, may be rolled into 
pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of 
turpentine thirty gallons. Used for the ironwork of carriages, and 
other nice purposes. 

BRONZE VARNISH FOR STATUARY. 

Cut best hard soap fifty parts, into tine shavings, dissolve in boil- 
ing water two parts, to which add the solution of blue vitriol fifteen 
parts, in pure water six^y parts. Wash the copper-soap with water, 
dry it at a very slow heat, and dissolve it in spirits of turpentine. 



64 VARNISHES. 



AMBER VARNISHES, 

1. Amber one pound, pale boiled oil ten ounces, turpentine ona 
pint. Render the amber, placed in an iron pot, semiliquid by heat ; 
then add the oil, mix, remove it from the fire, and when cooled a 
a little, stir in the turpentine. 2. To the amber, melted as above, 
add two ounces of shellac, and proceed as before. 

This varnish is rather dark, but remarkably tough. The first form 
is the best. It is used for the same purposes as copal varnish, and 
forms an excellent article for covering wood, or any other substance 
not of a white or very pale color. It dries well, and is veiy hard 
and durable. 

AMBER VARNISH, BLACK. 

Amber one pound, boiled oil one-half pint, powdered asphaltum 
six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint. Melt the amber, as before 
described, then add the asphaltum, previously mixed with the cold 
oil, and afterwards heated very hot, mix well, remove the vessel from 
the fire, and when cooled a little add the turpentine, also made warm. 

Each of the above varnishes should be reduced to a proper con- 
sistence with more turpentine if required. The last form produces 
the beautiful black varnish used by the coachmakers. Some manu- 
ficturers omit the whole or part of the asphaltum, and use the same 
quantity of clear black rosin instead, in which case the color is 
brought up by lampblack reduced to an impalpable powder, or pre- 
viously ground very fine with a little boiled oil. The varnish made 
in this way, lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and depth of 
blackness imparted by asphaltum. 

AMBER VARNISHES. 

1. {Pale,) Amber pale and transparent six pounds, fuse, add hot 
clarified linseed oil two gallons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a 
little, and add oil of turpentine four gallons. Pale as copal varnish ; 
soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes ; 
but requires time before it is fit for polishing. When wanted to dry 
and harden quicker, *' drying " oil maybe substituted for linseed, 
or '* driers ' ' may be added during the boiling. 2. Amber one pound ; 
melt, add Scio turpentine one-half pound, transparent white resin 
two ounces, hot linseed oil one pint, and afterwards oil of turpentine 
as much as sufficient ; as above. Very tough. 3. {Hard.) Melted 
amber four ounces, hot boiled oil one quart ; as before. 4. {Pale.) 
Very pale and transparent amber four ounces, clarified linseed oil and 
oil of turpentine, of each one pint ; as before. 

Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, where a very hard and 
durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to copal 
varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase its hardness 
and durability. 

BLACK VARNISH. 

Heat to boiling linseed oil varnish ten parts, with burnt umber 
two parts, and powdered asphaltum one part, and when cooled dilui« 
with spirits of turpentine to the required consistence 



VARNISHES. 65 



VARNISH FOR CKSTAIK PARTS OF CARRIAGES, 

Sandarach, 190 parts ; pale sheii-^, 96 ; resin, 125 ; turpentine, 
VJO ; alcohol, at 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure. 

COACH VARNISH. 

Mix shellac sixteen parts, white turpentine three parts, lamp- 
bl i3k sufficient quantity, and digest with alcohol ninety parts, oil 
of lavender four parts. 

MAHOGANY VARNISH. 

Sorted gum-anirae eight pounds, clarified oil three gallons, litharge 
and powdered dried sugar of lead, of each one-fourth pound ; boil till 
it sti-mgs well, then cool a little, thin with oil of turpentine five and 
one-half gallons, and strain. 

VARNISH FOR CABINET MAKERS. 

Pale shellac, 750 parts ; mastic, 64 ; alcohol, of 00 per cent, 
1000 parts by measure The solution is made in the cold, with the 
aid of frequent stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed 
without being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a var- 
nish is made for the bookbinders to do over their morocco leather. 

CEMENT VARNISH FOR WATER-TIGHT LUTING. 

White turpentine fourteen parts, shellac eighteen parts, resin six 
parts, digest with alcohol eighty parts. 

THE VARNISH OF WATIN FOR GILDED ARTICLES. 

Gum-lac, in grain, 125 parts ; gamboge, 125 ; dragon's blood, 
125 ; annotto, 125 ; saffron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in 
1003 parts by measure, of alcoliol of 90 per cent ; two separate tinc- 
tures must be made with the dragon's blood and aunotto, in 1000 
parts of such alcohol ; an J a proper proportion of each should be added 
to the varnish, according to the shade of golden color wanted. 

CHEAP OAK VARNISH. 

Clear pale resin three and one-half pounds, oil of turpentine one 
giUon ; dissolve. It may be colored darker by adding a little fine 
lampblack. 

VARNISH FOR WOOD-WORK. 

Powdered gum sandarach eight parts, gum mastic two parts, 
seed-lac eight parts, and digest in a warm place for some days with 
alcohol twenty-four parts, and finally, dilute with sufficient alcohol 
to the required consistence. 

DARK VARNISH FOR LIGHT WOOD-WORK. 

Pound up and digest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach thirty, 
two parts, gum mistic (juniper) eight parts, gum elemi ^i^ki 
6* ' 



b VARNISHES. 

parts, dragon's blood four pirts, annotto one part, with white tur- 
pentine sixteen parts, and alcohol two hundred and fifty-six. Di" 
lute with alcohol if required. 

VARNISH FOR INSTRUMENTS. 

Digest seed-l.ic one pirt, with abohol se^'en parts, and filter. 

VARNISH FOR THE WOOD TOYS OF SPA. 

Tender copal, 75 parts ; mastic, 12.5 ; Venice turpentine, 6 5 ; 
abohol, of 95 per cent, 103 parts by measure ; water ounces, for 
example, if the other parts be taken in ounces. The alcohol must 
be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a little oil of lav- 
ender or camphor, if thought fit ; and the solution bein^'^ passed 
throuxh a linen cloth, the mastic must be introduced. After it is 
dissolved, the Venice turpentine, previously melted in a water-bath, 
should be added ; the lower the temperature at which these operations 
are cirried on, the more beautifal will the varnish be. This varnish 
ou-^ht to be very white, very drying, and capable of being smoothed 
with pumice-stone and polished. 

VARNISHES FOR FURNITURE. 

The simplest, and perhaps the best, is the solution of shellac only, 
but many add gums sandarach, mistic^ copal, arable, benjamin, &c., 
fx'om the idea that they contribute to the elTect. Gum arable is cer- 
tainly never required if the solvent be pure, because it is insoluble in 
either rectified spirit or rectified wood naphtha, the menstrua em- 
ployed in dissolving the gums. As spirit is seldom used on account 
of its expense, most of the following are mentioned as solutions in 
naphtha, but spirit can be substituted when thought proper. 

1. Shellac one and a half pounds, naphtha one gallon ; dissolve, 
and it is ready without filtering. 2. Shellac twelve ounces, copal 
three ounces, (or an equivalent of varnish) ; dissolve in one gallon of 
naphtha. 3. Shellac one and a half pounds, seed-lac and sandarach 
each four ounces, mastic two ounces, rectified spirit one gallon ; dis- 
solve. 4. Shellac two pounds, benzoin four ounces, spirit one gal- 
lon. 5. Shellac ten ounces, seed-lac, sandarach, and copal varnish 
of each, six ounces, benzoin three ounces, naphtha one gallon. 

To darken polish, benzoin and dragon's-blood are used, turmeric 
and other coloring matters are also added ; and to make it lighter it 
is necessary to use bleached lac, though some endeavor to give 
this effect by adding oxalic acid to the ingredients, it, like gum 
arable, is insoluble in good spirit or naphtha. For all ordinary pur- 
poses the first form is best and least troublesome, while its appearance 
is equal to any other. 

TO FRENCH POLISH. 

Ihe wood must be pi iced level, and sand-papered until it is qinu 
iTnooth, otherwise it will not polish. Then provide a rubber of cloth, 
list, or sponge, wrap it in a soft rag, so as to leave a handle at the 
b^Qk for your hand, shi^ke the bottle against tbQ rubber, aftd io th? 



VARNISHES. 67 

middle of the varnisli on the rag place with your finger a little raw 
linseed oil. Now commence rubbing, in small circular strokes, and 
continue until the pores are filled, charging the rubber with varnish 
and oil as required, until the whole wood has had one coat. When 
dry repeat the process once or twice until the surface appears even 
and fine, between each coat using fine sand-paper to smooth down all 
irregularities. Lastly, use a clem rubber with a little strong alcohol 
only, which will remove the oil and the cloudiness it causes ; when 
the work will be complete. 

FURNITURE POLISHES. 

New wood is often French-polished. Or the following may be tried : 
Melt three or four pieces of sandarach, each the size of a walnut, 
add one pint of boiled oil, and boil together for one hour. While cool- 
rng add one drachm of Venice turpentine, and if too thick a little oil 
cf turpentine also. Apply this all over the furniture, and after some 
hours rub it oS" ; rub the furniture daily, without applying fresh var- 
n-ish, except about once in two months. Water does not injure this 
polish, and any stain or scratch may be again covered, which cannot 
be done with French-polish. 

FURNITURE GLOSS. 

To give a gloss to household furniture, various compositions are 
used, known as wax, polish, creams, pastes, oils, &c. The following 
are some of the forms used : 

FURNITURE CREAM. 

Bees-wax one pound, soap four ounces, pearlash two ounces, soft 
Water one gallon ; boil together until mixed. 

FURNITURE OILS. 

1. Acetic acid two drachms, oil of lavender one-half drachm, 
rectified spirit one drachm, linseed oil four ounces. 2. Linseed oil 
one pint, alkanet root two ounces ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish 
one ounce. 3. Linseed oil one pint, rectified spirit two ounces, 
butter of antimony four ounces. 

FURNITURE PASTES. 

1. Bees-wax, spirit of turpentine, and linseed oil, equal parts ; 
melt and cool. 2. Bees-wax four ounces, turpentine ten ounces, 
alkanet root to color ; melt and strain. 3. Bees-wax one pound, 
linseed oil five ounces, alkanet root one-half ounce ; melt, add five 
ounces of turpentine, strain and cool. 4. Bees-wax four ounces, 
resin one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, Venetian red to color. 

ETCHING VARNISHES. 

1. White wax, two ounces ; black and Burgundy pitch, of each 
one-half ounce ; melt together, add by degrees powdered asphaltum 
two ounces, and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break 
wUcn cold by being bent double two or three times between the fcj* 



68 VARNISHES. 

gers ; it must then he poured into warm water and made into small 

balls for use. 2. {Hard Varnish.) Linseed oil and mastic, of each 
four ounces ; melt together. 3. {Soft Varnish.) Soft linseed oil, 
four ounces ; gum benzoin and white wax, of each one-half ounce ; 
boil to two-tiiirds. 

VARNISH FOR ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, ETC. 

Digest gum sandarach twenty parts, gum mastic eight parts, 
camphor one part, with abohol forty-eight parts. The map or en- 
graving must previously receive one or two coats of gelatine. 

VARNISH TO FIX ENGRAVINGS OR LITHOGRAPHS ON WOOD. 

For fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish called 
mordant is used in France, which differs from others chiefly in contain- 
ing more Venice turpentine, to make it sticky ; it consists of sanda- 
r.ich, 253 parts ; mastio in tears, 64 ; rosin, 125 ; Venice turpentine, 
250 ; alcohol, 1000 parts by measure. 

VARNISHES FOR OIL PAINTINGS AND LITHOGRAPHS. 

1. Dextrine 2 parts, alcohol 1 part, water 6 parts. 2. Varnish 
for drawings and lithographs : dextrine 2 parts, alcohol 4 part, 
water 2 parts. These should be prepared previously with two or 
three coats of thin starch or rice boiled and strained through a cloth. 

VARNISH FOR OIL PAINTINGS. 

Digest at a slow heat gum sandarach two parts, gum mastic four 
parts, balsam copaiva two parts, white turpentine three parts, with 
spirits of turpentme four parts, alcohol (95 per cent) 50-56 parts. 

BEAUTIFUL VARNISH FOR PAINTINGS AND PICTURES. 

Honey, 1 pint; the whites of two dozen fresh hen's eggs; 1 ounce 
of good clean isinglass, 23 grains of hydrate of potassium, 4 ounce 
of chloride of sodium; mix together over a gentle heat of 80 or 90 
degrees Fah. ; be careful not to let the mixture remain long enough 
to coagulate the albumen of the eg^'s ; stir the mixture thoroughly, 
then bottle. It is to be applied as follows : one table spoonful of the 
varnish added to half a table spoonful of good oil of turpentine, 
then spread on the picture as soon as mixed. 

MILK OF WAX. 

Milk of wax is a valuable varnish, which may be prepared as fol- 
lows : — Melt in a porcelaia capsule a certain quantity of white wax, 
and add to it, while in fusion, an equal quantity of spirit of wine, of 
sp. grav. 0-830 ; stir the mixture, and pour it upon a large porphyry 
slab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste by the mul- 
ler, with the addition, from time to time, of a little alcohol ; and as 
Boun as it appears to be smooth and homogeneous, water is to be in' 
troduced in small quantities successively, to the amount of four times 
tU^ weight of the wax. TUis cn^ulsion is to be then passed througb 



VAUNlStttS. 69 

Canvas, in order to separate such particles as may be imperfectly in- 
corporated. The milk of wax, thus prepared, may be spread with a 
smooth brush upon the surface of a painting, allowed to dry, and then 
fused by passing a hot iron (salamander) over its surface. When 
cold, it is to be rubbed with a linen cloth to bring out the lustre. It 
is to the unchangeable quality of an encaustic of this nature, that the 
ancient paintings upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii owe 
their freshness at the present day. 

CRYST.Ui VARNISHES. 

1. Genuine pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine, 
equal parts ; mix, place the bottle in warm water, agitate well, set it 
aside, in a moderately warm place, and in a week pour off the clear. 
Used for maps, prints, drawings, and other artichs of paper, and 
also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings. 2. Mastic 
three ounces, alcohol one pint ; dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings. 

ITALIAN VARNISHES. 

1. Boil Scio turpentine till brittle, powder, and dissolve in oil of 
turpentine. 2. Canada balsam and clear white resin, of each six 
ounces, oil of turpentine one quart ; dissolve. Used for prints, &c. 

WATER VARNISH FOR OIL-PAINTINGS. 

Boil bitter-apple, freed from the seeds and cut five parts, with rain- 
water fifty parts, down to one-lialf. Strain and dissolve in the liquor 
gum arable eight parts, and rock-candy four parts, and lastly, add 
one part of alcohol. Let it stand for some days, and filter. 

VARNISH FOR PAPER-HANGINGS. 

Sandarach, four parts, mastic, seed-lac, white turpentine, of each 
two parts, gum elemi one part, alcohol twenty-eight parts. Digest 
witli frequent shaking, and filter. Before applying this varnish, the 
paper must be twice painted over with a solution of white gelatine, 
and dried. 

book-binders' VARNISH. 

Shellac eight parts, gum benzoin three parts, gum mastic two 
parts, bruise, and digest in alcohol forty-eight parts, oil of lavender 
one-half part. Or, digest shellac four parts, gum mastic two parts, 
gum dammar and white turpentine of each one part, with alcohol 
(95 per cent) twenty-eight parts. 

TO VARNISH CARDWORK. 

Before varnishing cardwork, it must receive two or three coats of 
size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to the 
design. The size may be made by dissolving a little isinglass in hot 
water, or by boiling some parchment cuttings until dissolved. In 
cither case the solution must be strained through a piece of clean 
muslin, and for very nice purposes, should be clarified with a little 



70 VAitNlSMS. 

wliite of egg. A small clean brush, called by painters a sasb tool, is 
the best for applying the size, as well as the varnish. A light deli- 
cate touch must be adopted, especially for the first coat, least the 
ink or colors be started, or smothered. 

SIZE, OR VARNISH, FOR PRINTERS, ETC. 

Best pale glue and white curd soap, of each 4 ounces ; hot water 8 
pints ; dissolve, then add powdered alum 2 ounces. Used to size 
prints and pictures before coloring them. 

VARNISH FOR BRICK WALLS. 

A varnish made with one pound of sulphur boiled for half an hour 
in an iron vessel is a perfect prctecticn from damp to brick walls. It 
should be applied with a brush , while warm. 

MASTIC VARNISHES. 

1. (Fine,) Very pale and picked gum mastic five pounds, glass 
pounded as small as barley, and well washed and dried two and one- 
half pounds, rectified turpentine two gallons ; put them into a clean 
four gallon stone or tin bottle, bung down securely, and keep rolling 
it backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter or any other 
solid place for at least four hours ; when, if the gum is all dissolved, 
the varnish may be decanted, strained through muslin into another 
bottle, and allowed to settle. It should be kept for six or nine months 
before use, as it thereby gets both tougher and clearer. 2. (Second 
Quality.) Mastic eight pounds, turpentine four gallons ; dissolve by 
a gentle heat, and add pale turpentine varnish one-half gallon. 
8. Gum mastic six ounces, oil of turpentine one quart ; dissolve. 

Mastic varnish is used for pictures, &c. ; when good, it is tough, 
hard, brilliant, and colorless. Should it get '* chilled ^^^ one pound 
of well-washed silicious sand should be made moderately hot, and 
added to each gallon, which must then be well agitated for five min- 
utes, and afterwards allowed to settle. 

INDIA-RUBBER VARNISHES. 

1. Cut up one pound of India rubber into small pieces and difiiise 
in half a pound of sulphuric ether, which is done by digesting in a 
glass flask on a sand bath. Then add cne pound pale linseed oil var- 
nish, previously heated, and after settling, cne pound of oil of tur- 
pentine, also heated beforehand. Filter, while yet warm, into bottles. 
Dries slowly. 

2. Two ounces India rubber finely divided and digested in the same 
way, with a quarter of a pound of camphene, and half an ounce of 
naphtha or benzole. When dissolved add one ounce of copal varnish, 
which renders it more durable. Principally for gilding. 

8. In a wide mouthed glass bottle, digest two ounces of India rub- 
ber in fine shavings, with one pound of oil of turpentine, during two 
days, without shaking, then stir up with a wooden spatula. Add 



VARNlSflES. 71 

another pound of oil of turpentine, and digest, w'.tli frequent agitation, 
until all is dissolved. Tiien mix a pound and a half of this solution 
with two pounds of very white copal-oil varnish, and a pound and a 
half of well boiled linseed oil, shike and digest in a sand bath, until 
they have united into a good varnish. — For morocco leather. 

4. Four ounces India rubber in fine shavings are dissolved in a 
covered jar by means of a sand bath, in two pounds of crude benzole, 
and then mixed with four pounds of hot linseed oil varnish, and a 
half pound of oil of turpentine. Dr'es very well. 

5. Flexible Varnish.— MqM one pound of rosin, and add gradually 
half a pound of India rubber in very fine shavings, and stir until cold. 
Then heat again, slowly, add one pound of linseed oil varnish, heated, 
and filter. 

6. Another. — Dissolve one pound of gum dammar, and a half 
pound of India rubber, in very small pieces, in one pound of oil of 
turpentine, by means of a water bath. Add one pound of hot oil 
varnish and filter. 

7. Indii rubber in small pieces, washed and dried, are fused for 
three hours in a close vessel, on a gradually heated sand bath. On 
removing from the sand bath, open the vessel and stir for ten minutes, 
then close again, and repeat the fusion on the following day, until 
small globules appear on the surface. Strain through a wire sieve. 

8. Varnish for Waterproof Goods. — Let a quarter of a pound of 
India rubber, in small pieces, soften in a half pound of oil of turpen- 
tine, then add two pounds of boiled oil, and let the whole boil for two 
hours over a slow coal fire. When dissolved, add again six pounds of 
boiled linseed oil and one pound of ktharge, and boil until an even 
liquid is obtained. It is applied warm. 

9. Gutta Percha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound of Gutta 
Percha in warm water from adhering impurities, dry well, dissolve in 
one pound of rectified rosin oil, and add two pounds of linseed oil 
varnish, boiling hot. Very suitable to prevent metals from oxidation. 

BL\CK VARXISn FOR HARNESS. 

Digest shellac twelve parts, white turpentine five parts, gum 
sandarach two parts, lampblack one part, with spirits of turpentine 
four parts, alcohol ninety-six parts. 

BOILED OIL OR LINSEED-OIL VARNISH. 

Boil linseed oil sixty parts, with litharge two parts, and white 
vitriol one part, each finely powdered, until all water is evaporated. 
Then set by. Or, '-ub up borate of manganese four parts, with some 
of the oil, then add linseed oil three thousand parts, and heat to 
boiling. 

DAM:\L\R VARNISH. 

Gum dammar ten parts, gum sandarach five parts, gum ir'astlo 
oue part, digest at a low heat, occasionally shaking, with spii.ts of 



12 VAtlNlSMS. 

turpentine twenty parts. Finally, add more spirits of turpet>.titL9 
to give the consistence of syrup. 

COMMON VARNISH. 

Digest shellac one part, with alcohol seven or eight parts. 

WATERPROOF VARNISHES. 

Take one pound of flowers of sulphur and one gallon of linseed oil, 
and boil them together until they are thoroughly combined. This 
forms a good varnish for waterproof textile fabrics. Another is made 
with four pounds oxyde of lead, twopounds of lampblack, five ounces 
of sulphur, and ten pounds of India rubber dissolved i*n turpentine. 
These substances, in such proportions, are boiled together until they 
are thoroughly combined. Coloring matters may be mixed with them. 
Twilled cotton may be rendered waterproof by the application of the 
oil sulphur varnish. It should be applied at two or three different 
times, and dried after each operation. 

VARNISHES FOR BALLOONS, GAS BAGS, ETC. 

1. India rubber in shavings one ounce ; mineral naphtha two lbs. ; 
digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved, and strain. 2. 
Digest one pound of Ind'ian rubber, cut small, in six pounds oil of 
turpentine for 7 days, in a warm place. Put the mixture in a water 
bath, heat until thoroughly mixed, add one gallon of warm boiled 
drying oil, mix, and strain when cold. 8. Linseed oil one gallon ; 
dried white copperas and sugar of lead, each three ounces; litharge 
eight ounces ; boil with constant as^itation till it strings well, tlien 
oool slowly and decant the clear. If too thick, thin it with quicker 
drying linseed oil. 

GOLD VARNISH. 

Digest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach, mastic, of each three 
parts, crocus one part, gum gamboge two parts, all bruised, with 
alcohol one hundred forty-four parts. Or, digest seed-lac, sanda- 
rach, mastic, of each eight parts, gamboge two parts, dragon's blood 
one part, white turpentine six parts, turmeric four parts, bruised, 
with alcohol one hundred twenty parts. 

WAINSCOT VARNISH FOR HOUSE PAINTING AND JAPANNING. 

Anime eight pounds ; clarified linseed oil three gallons ; litharge 
one-fourth pound ; acetate of lead one-half pound ; sulf'iate of copper 
one-fourth pound. 

All these materials must be carefully but thoroughly boiled together 
until the mixture becomes quite stringy, and then five and a half 
gallons of heated turpentine stirred in. It can be easily deepened in 
color by the addition of a little gold-size. 



LACKERS. 73 

LACKERS. 

GOLD LACKER. 

Put into a clean four gallon tin, one pound of ground turmeric, 
one and a half ounces of gamboge, three and a half pounds of pow- 
dered gum sandarach, three quarters of a pound of shellac, and two 
gallons of spirits of wine. When shaken, dissolved, and strained, 
add one pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed. 

RED SPIRIT LACKER. 

Ma le exactly as the gold lacker with these ingredients : two gal- 
lons of spirits of wine, one pound of dragon's blood, three pounds of 
Spanish annotto, three and a quarter pounds of gum sandarach, and 
two pints of turpentine. 

PALE BRASS LACKER. 

Two gallons of spirits of wine, one pound of fine pale shellac, 
three ounces of Cape aloes, cut small ; one ounce of gamboge, cut 
small. 

LACKER FOR TIN. 

Any good lacker laid upon tin gives it the appearance of copper 
or brass. It is made by coloring lac-varnish with turmeric to impait 
the color of brass to it, and with annotto, to give it the color of cop- 
per. If a tin plate is dipped into molten brass, the latter metal will 
adhere to it in a coat. 

LACKER VARNISH. 

A good lacker is made by coloring lac-varnish with furmeric and 
annotto. Add as much of these two coloring substances to the varnish 
as will give it the proper color ; then squeeze the varnish through a 
cotton cloth, when it forms lacker. 

DEEP GOLD COLORED LACKER. 

Seed-lac three ounces, turmeric one ounce, dragon's blood one- 
fourth ounce, alcohol one pint ; digest for a week, frequently shaking, 
decant and tilter. 

Lackers are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the ap- 
pearance of gold. If yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saifron, 
or gamboge ; for red, use annotto, or dragon's blood, to color. Tur- 
meric, gamboge, and dragon's blood, generally afford a sufficient 
range of colors. 

LACKERS FOR PICTURES, METAL, WOOD OR LEATHER. 

1. Seed-lac eight ounces, alcohol one quart ; digest in a close vessel 
in a warm situation for three or four days, then decant and strain. 
2. Substitute lac bleached by chlorine for seed-lac. Both are ver^ 
tough, hard, and durable ; the last almost colorless, 

7 



fi MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 



MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS, 



ARMENIAN OR DIAMOND CEMENT. 

This article, so much esteemed for uniting pieces of broken glass, 
for repairing precious stones, and for cementing them to watch cases 
and other ornaments, is made by soaking isinglass in water until it 
becomes quite soft, and then mixing it with spirit in which a little 
gum mastic and ammoniacum have been dissolved. 

The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Armenians, have a singular 
method of ornamenting watch cases, &c., with dianionds and other 
precious stones, by simply glueing or cementing them on. The stone 
is set in silver or gold, and the lower part of the metal made flat, or 
to correspond with the part to which it is to be fixed ; it is then 
warmed gently, and has the glue applied, which is so very strong 
that the parts so cemented never separate ; this glue, which will 
strongly unite bits of glass, and even polished steel, and may be ap- 
plied to a variety of useful purposes, is thus made in Turkey : — Dis- 
80 ve five or six bits of gum mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as 
mluch spirits of wine as will suffice to render it liquid ; and in another 
vessel, dissolve as much isinglass, previously a little softened in Avater, 
(though none of the water must be used,) in French brandy or good 
rum, as will make a two-ounce vial of very strong glue, adding two 
small bits of gum albanum, or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed 
or ground till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a suffi- 
cient heat. Keep the glue in a vial closely stopped, and when it is 
to be used, set the vial in boiling water. Some persons have ?old a 
composition under the name of Armenian cement, in England ; but 
this composition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the quantity 
of mastic is much too small. 

The following are good proportions : isinglass, soaked in water and 
dissolved in spirit, two ounces, (thick) ; dissolve in this ten grains of 
very pale gum ammoniac, (in tears,) by rubbing them together ; 
then add six large tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible 
quantity of rectified spirit. 

Isinglass, di^olved in proof spirit, as above, three oun-ses ; bottoms 
of mastic varnish (thick but clear) one and a half ounces ; mix well. 

When carefully made, this cement resists moisture, and dries col- 
orless. As usually met with, it is not only of very bad quality, but 
sold at exorbitant prices. 

CEMENTS FOR MENDING EARTHERN AND GLASS WARE. 

1. Hent the article to be mended, a little above boiling water heat, 
then apply a thin coating of gum shellac, on both surfaces of the 
broken vessel, and when cold it will be as strong as it was originally. 
2. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, apply the solution, and bind the 
parts firmly together until the cement is perfectly dry. 



MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 73 



CEMENT FOR STONEWARE. 

Another cement in which an analogous substance, the curd or ca- 
seuin of milk is employed, is made by boiling slices of skim-milk cheese 
into a gluey consistence in a great (quantity of water, and then incor- 
porating it with quicklime on a slab with a muller, or in a marble 
mortar. When this compound is applied warm to broken edges of 
stoneware, it unites them very firmly after it is cold. 

IRON-RUST CEMENT. 

The iron-rust cement is made of from fifty to one hundred parts of 
iron borings, pounded and sifted, mixed with one part of sal-ammo- 
niac, and when it is to be applied moistened with as much water as 
will give it a pasty consistency. Formerly flowers of sulphur were 
used, and much more sal-ammoniac in making this cement, but with 
decided disadvantage, as the union is efiected by oxidizement, conse- 
quent expansion and solidific;ition of the iron powder, and any hetero- 
geneous matter obstructs the effect. The best proportion of sal-ammo- 
niac is, I believe, one per cent of the iron borings. Another compo- 
sition of the same kind is made by mixing four parts of fine borings or 
filings of iron, two parts of potter's clay, and one part of pounded 
potsherds, and making them into a paste with salt and water. When 
this cement is allowed to concrete slowly on iron joints, it becomes 
very hard. 

FOR MAKING ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 

For making architectural ornaments in relief, a moulding compo- 
sition is formed of chalk, glue, and paper paste. Even statues have 
been made with it, the paper aiding the cohesion of the mass. 



Mastics of a resinous or bituminous nature, which must be softened 
or fused by heat, are the following : — 

VARLEY's MASTIC. 

Mr. S. Varley's consists of sixteen parts of whiting sifted and thor- 
oughly dried by a red heat, adding when cold a melted mixture of 
sixteen parts of black rosin and one of bees'-wax, and stirring well 
during the cooling. 

ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS CEMENT. 

Electrical and chemical apparatus cement consists of 5 lbs. of rosin, 
1 of bees'-wax, 1 of red ochre, and two table-spoonsful of Paris plas- 
ter, all melted together. A cheaper one for cementing voltaic plates 
into wooden troughs is made with 6 pounds of rosin, 1 pound of red 
ochre, 4 of a pound of plaster of Paris, and i of a pound of linseed 
oil. The ochre and the plaster of Paris should be calcined beforehand, 
and added to the other ingredients in their melted state. The thinner 
the stratum of cement that is interposed, the stronger, generally speak- 
ing, is the junction. 



76 MlSCELLAN^OtJS CEMENTS. 

CEMENT FOR IRON TUBES, BOILERS, ETC. 

Finely powdered iron sixty-six parts, sal-ammoniac one part, water 
a sufficient quantity to form into paste. 

CEMENT FOR IVORY, MOTHER OF PEARL, ETC. 

Dissolve one part of isinglass and two of white glue in thirty of wa- 
ter, strain and evaporate to six parts. Add one-thirtieth part of 
gum mastic, dissolved in half a part of alcohol, and one part of 
white zinc. When required for use, warm and shake up. 

CEMENT FOR HOLES IN CASTINGS. 

The best cement for this purpose is made by mixing one part of 
sulphur in powder, two parts of sal-ammoniac, and eighty parts of 
clean powdered iron turnings. Sufficient water must be added to 
make it into a thick paste, which should be pressed into the holes or 
seams which are to be filled up. The ingredients composing this ce- 
ment should be kept separate, and not mixed until required for use. 
It is to be applied cold, and the casting should not be used for two or 
three days afterwards. 

CEMENT FOR COPPERSMITHS AND ENGINEERS. 

Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed together into a putty are often 
used by coppersmiths and engineers, to secure joints. The. washers of 
leather or cloth are smeared with this mixture in a pasty state. 

A CHEAP CEMENT. 

Melted brimstone, either alone, or mixed with rosin and brick dust, 
forms a tolerably good and very cheap cement. 

plumber's CEMENT. 

Plumber's cement consists of black rosin one part, brick dust two 
parts, well incorporated by a melting heat. 

CEMENT FOR BOTTLE-CORKS. 

The bituminous or black cement for bottle-corks consists of pitch 
hardened by the addition of rosin and brick-dust. 

CHINA CEMENT. 

Take the curd of milk, dried and powdered, ten ounces ; quicklime 
one ounce ; camphor two drachms. Mix, and keep in closely stopped 
bottles. When used, a portion is to be mixed with a little water into 
a paste, to be applied quickly. 

CEMENT FOR LEATHER. 

A mixture of India-rubber and shell-lac varnish makes a very ad- 
hesive leather cement. A strong solution of common isinglass, with 
a little diluted alcohol added to it, makes an excellent cement for 
leather. 



MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 77 



MARBLE CE-MENT. 

Take plaster of paris, and soak it in a saturated solution of alum, 
<lien bake the two in an oven, the same as gypsum is baked to make 
\t plaster of paris ; after which tliej are ground to powder. It is 
then used as wanted, being mixed up with water like plaster and ap- 
plied. It sets into a very hard composition capable of taking a veiy 
high polish. It may be mixed with various coloi'ing minerals to pro- 
duce a cement of any color capable of imitating marble. 

A GOOD CEMENT. 

Shellac dissolved in alcohol, or in a solution of borax, forms a pretty 
good cement. 

CEMENT FOR MARBLE WORKERS AND COPPERSMITHS. 

White of egg alone, or mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will 
answer for uniting objects which are not exposed to moisture. The 
latter combination is very strong, and is much employed for joining 
pieces of spar and marble ornaments. A similar composition is used 
by coppersmiths to secure the edges and rivets of boilers ; only bul- 



TRANSPARENT CEMENT FOR GLASS. 

Dissolve one part of India-rubber in 64 of chloroform, then add 
gum mastic in powder 16 to 24 parts, and digest for two days with 
frequent shaking. Apply with a camels-hair brush. 

CEMENT TO MEND IRON POTS AND PANS. 

Take two parts of sulphur, and one part, by weight, of fine black 
lead ; put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the fire 
until it begins to melt, then add the lead ; stir well until all is mixed 
and melted ; then pour out on an iron plate, or smooth stone. When 
cool, break into small pieces. A sufii3ient quantity of this compound 
being placed upon the crack of the iron pot to be mended, can be 
soldered by a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith solders his sheets. 
If there is a small hole in the pot, drive a copper rivet in it and then 
Solder over it with this cement. 

CEMENT TO RENDER CISTERNS AND CASKS WATER TIGHT. 

An excellent cement for resisting moisture is made by incorporating 
thoroughly eight parts of melted glue, of the consistence used by car- 
penters, with four parts of linseed oil, boiled into varnish with lith- 
arge. This cement hardens in about forty eight hours, and renders 
the joints of wooden cisterns and casks air and water light. A com- 
pound of glue with one-fourth its weight of Venice turpentine, made 
as above, serves to cement glass, metal and wood, to one another 
Fresh-made cheese curd, and old skini-railk cheese, boiled in water to 
% slimy consistence, dissolved iu a gglutiou of bici^rbonate of potasUn 



76 MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 

are said to form a good cement for glass and porcelain. The gluten of 
wheat, well prepared, is also a good cement. White of eggs, with 
flour and water well-mixed, and smeared over linen cloth, forms a 
ready lute for steam joints in small apparatus. 

CEMENT FOR REPAIRING FRACTURED BODIES OF ALL KINDS. 

White lead ground upon a slab with linseed oil earnish, and kept 
out of contact of air, affords a cement capable of repairing fractured 
bodies of all kinds. It requires a few weeks to harden. When stone 
or iron are to be cemented together, a compound of equal parts ol sul- 
phur with pitch answers very well. 

CEMENTS FOR CRACKS IN WOOD. 

Make a paste of slacked lime one part, rye-meal two parts, with a 
sufficient quantity of linseed oil. Or, dissolve one part of glue in six- 
teen parts of water, and when almost cool stir in sawdust and pre- 
pared chalk a sufficient quantity. Or, oil-varnish thickened with a 
mixture of equal parts of white-lead, led-lead, litharge, and chalk. 

CEMENT FOR JOINING METALS AND WOOD. 

Melt rosin and stir in calcined plaster until reduced to a paste, 
to which add boiled oil a sufficient quantity, to bring it to the con- 
sistence of honey ; apply warm. Or, n.el rosin 180 parts, and stir 
in burnt umber 30, calcined plaster 15, and boiled oil 8 parts. 

GAS fitters' CEMENT. 

Mix together, resin four and one-half parts, wax one part, and 
Venetian red three parts. 

IMPERVIOUS CEMENT FOR APPARATUS, CORKS, ETC. 

Zinc-white rubbed up with copal varnish to fill up the indentures; 
when dry, to be covered with the same mass, somewhat thinner, and 
lastly with copal varnish alone. 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING BRASS TO GLASS VESSELS. 

Melt rosin 150 parts, wax 30, and add burnt ochre 30, and cal- 
cined plaster 2 parts. Apply warm. 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING BLADES, FILES, ETC. 

Shellac two parts, prepared chalk one, powdered and mixed. The 
opening for the blade is filled with this powder, the lower end of the 
iron heated and pressed in. 

HYDRAULIC CEMENT PAINT. 

If hydraulic cement be mixed with oil, it forms a first-rate anti- 
combustible and excellent water-proof paiut for roofs of buildings, 
outhouses, walls, &c, 



builders' CE3IENTS. 79 

BUILDERS' CEIMENTS. 



CEMENT FOR TERRACES, FLOORS, ROOFS, RESERVOIRS, ETC. 

In certain localities where a limestone impregnated with bitumen 
occurs, it is dried, ground, sifted, and then mixed with about its own 
weight of melted pitch, either mineral, vegetable, or that of cold tar. 
When this mixture is getting semifluid, it may be moulded into largo 
slabs or tiles in wooden frames lined with sheet iron, previously 
smeared over with common lime mortar, in order to prevent adhesion 
to the moulds, which, being in moveable pieces, are easily dismounted 
so as to turn out the cake of artificial bituminous stone. This cement 
is manufictured upon a great scale in many places, and used for 
nuking Italian terraces, covering the floors of balconies, flat roofs, 
water reservoirs, water conduits, &c. When laid down, the joints 
must be well run together with hot irons. The floor of the terrace 
should be previously covered with a layer of Paris plaster or common 
mortar, nearly an inch thick, w^ith a regular slope of one inch to the 
yard. Such bituminous cement weighs 144 pounds the cubic foot ; or 
a foot of squ;\re surface, one inch thick, weighs 12 pounds. Some- 
times a second layer of these slabs or tiles is applied over the first, 
with the precaution of making the seams or joints of the upper corres- 
pond with the middle of the under ones. Occasionally a bottom bed, 
of coarse cloth or gi'ay p-iper, is applied. The larger the slabs are 
made, as far as they can be conveniently tsansported and laid down, 
so much the better. 

MASTIC CEMENT FOR COVERING THE FRONTS OF HOUSES. 

Fifty parts, by measure, of clean dry sand, fifty of limestone (not 
burned) reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and 10 parts of 
red lead, mixed with as much boiled linseed oil, as w^ill make it 
slightly moist. The brick, to receive it, should be covered with thiee 
coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry, before 
the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, but it 
is not so moist. It becomes hard as stone in a few months. Care 
must be exercised not to use too much oil. 

CEMENT FOR OUTSIDE BRICK WALLS. 

Cement for the outside of brick walls, to imitate stone, is made of 
clean sand 90 parts, litharge 5 parts, plaster of Paris 5 parts, moist- 
ened with boiled linseed oil. The bi'icks should receive two or three 
coats of oil before the cement is applied. 

CEMENT FOR COATING THE FRONTS OF BUILDINGS. 

The cement of dihl for coating the fronts of buildings consists of lin- 
seed oil, rendered dry by boiling with litharge, and mixed wnth poi- 
gelaiu clay in fine powder, to give it the consistence of stifif mortar. 



80 builders' cements. 

Pipe-clay -would answer equally well if well dried, and any color might 
be given with ground bricks, or pottery. A little oil of turpentine to 
thin this cement aids its cohesion upon stone, brick or wood. It has 
been applied to sheets of wire cloth, and in this state laid upon ter- 
races, in order to make them water tight ; but it is a little less ex- 
pensive than lead. 

CEMENT FOR STEPS AND BRICK W^ALLS. 

A cement which gradually indurates to a stony consistence, may be 
made by mixing twenty parts of clean river saLd, two of litharge, and 
one of quicklime, into a thin putty with linseed oil. The quicklime 
may be replaced with litharge. When this cement is applied to mend 
broken pieces of stone, as steps of stairs, it acquires after some timo a 
stony hardness. A similar composition has been applied to coat over 
brick walls, under the name of mastic. 

A HARD CEMENT FOR SEAMS. 

An excellent cement Tor seams in the roofs of houses, or for any 
other exposed places, is made with white lead, dry white sand, and 
as much oil as will make it into the consistency of putty. This cement 
gets as hard as stone in a few weeks. It is a good cement for filling 
up cracks in exposed parts of brick buildings ; and for pointing up 
the base of chimneys, where they project through the roofs of shingled 
houses. 

ANOTHER GOOD CEMENT. 

Dissolve one pound of alum in boiling water, and while it is boiling 
add live pounds of brown soap, cut into small pieces ; boil the mixture 
about fifteen minutes. It then becomes sticl^y like shoemaker's w;ix. 
Now mix it with whiting to a proper consistency for filling up seams, 
&c. It becomes partially hard after a few months, and strongly ad- 
heres to wood. The wood should be perfectly dry. To make it ad- 
here it must be well pressed down. When dry it is impervious to 
water, and is slightly elastic. 

CE^IENT FOR TILE-ROOFS, 

The best cement for closing up seams in tile-roofs is composed of 
equal parts of whiting and dry sand and 25 per cent of litharge, made 
into the consistency of putty with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack 
when cold, nor melt, like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the 
sun. 

COARSE STUFF. 

Coarse stuff, or lime and hair, as it is sometimes called, is pre* 
pared in the same way as common mortar, with the addition of hair 
procured from the tanner, which must be well mixed with the mortar 
by means of a three-pronged rake, until the hair is equally distribu- 
ted throughout the composition. The mortar should be first formed, 
and when the lime and sand have been thoroughly mixed, the hair 
should be added by degrees, and the whole so thoroughly united, that 
the hair shall appear to be equally distributed throughout, 



builders' cements. 61 



PARKER S CEMENT. 

This cement, which is perhaps the best of all others for stucco, as 
it is not subject to crack or flake off, is now very commonly used, 
and is formed by burning argillaceous clay in the same manner that 
lime is made. It is then reduced to powder. The cement, as used 
by the plasterer, is sometimes employed alone, and sometimes it is 
mixed with sharp sand ; and it has then the appearance, and almost 
the strength, of stone. As it is impervious to water, it is very 
proper for lining tanks and cisterns. 

HAMELEIX'S CEMENT. 

This cement consists of earthy and other substances insoluble in 
water, or nearly so ; and these may be either those which are in 
their natural state, or have bean manufictured, such as earthen- 
ware and china ; those being always preferred wh'ch are least 
soluble in water, and have the least color. When these are pul- 
verized, some oxide of lead is added, such as litharge, gray oxide, 
or minium, reduced to a fine powder ; and to the compound is 
added a rjuant"ty of pulverized glass or flint stones, the whole 
being thoroughly mixed and made into a proper consistence with 
some vegetable o'l, as that of linseed. Th's makes a durable stucco 
or plaster, that is impervious to wet, and has the appearance of 
stone. 

The proportion of the several ingredients is as follows : — to every 
five hundred and sixty pounds of earth, or earths, such as pit sand, 
river sand, rock sand, pulverized earthenware or porcelain, add 
forty pounds of litharge, two pounds of pulverized glass or fl"nt, 
one pound of minium, and two pounds of gray oxide of lead. Mix 
tlie whole together, and sift it through sieves of different degrees 
of fineness, according to the purposes to which the cement is to be 
applied. 

The following is the method of using it : — To every thirty pounds 
weight of the cement in powder, add about one quart of oil, either 
linseed, walnut, or some other vegetable oil, nnd mix it in the same 
manner as any other mortar, pressing it gently together, either by 
treading on it, or with the trow^el ; it has then the appearance of 
moistened sand. Care must also be taken that no more is mixed at 
one time than is required for use, as it soon hardens into a solid 
mass. Before the cement is applied, the face of the wall to be plas- 
tered should be brushed over with oil, particularly if it be applied 
to brick, or any other substance that quickly imbibes the oil ; if to 
w^ood, lead, or any substance of a similar nature, less oil may be 
used. 

PLASTER IN IMITATION OF MARBLE — SCAGLIOLA. 

This species of work is exquisitely beautiful when done with taste 
and judgment, and is so like marble to the touch, as well as appear- 
ance, that it is scarcely possible to distinguish the one from the 
other. We shall endeavor to explain its composition, and the man- 



82 builders' cements. 

ner in which it is applied ; but so mii3h depends upon the workman's 
execution, that it is impossible for any one to succeed in an attempt 
to work with it without some practical experience. 

Procure some of the purest gypsum, and calcine it until the large 
masses have lost the brilliant, sparkling appearance by which they 
are characterized, and the whole mass appears uniformly opaque. 
This calcined gypsum is reduced to powder, and passed through a 
very fine sieve, and mixed up, as it is wanted for use, with glue, 
isino-lass, or some other material of the same kind. This solu- 
tion is colored with the tint required for the scagliola ; but when a 
marble of various cc ors is to be imitated, the several colored compo- 
sitions required by the artist must be placed in separate vessels, and 
they are then mingled together in neai-ly the same manner that the 
painter mixes his color on the pallet. Having the wall or column 
prepared with rough plaster, it is covered with the composition, and 
the colors intended to imitate the marble, of whatever kind it may 
be, are applied when the floating is going on. 

It now only remains to polish the work, which, as soon as the com- 
position is hard enough, is done by rubbing it with pumice-stone, the 
work being kept wet with water applied by a sponge. It is then 
polished with Tripoli and charcoal, with a piece of fine linen, and 
fill -shed with a piece of felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and Tripoli, 
and afterwards with pure oil. 

MALTHA, OR GREEK MASTIC. 

This is made by mixing lime and sand in the manner of mortar, 
and making it into a proper consistency with milk or size, instead of 
water. 

FINE STUFF. 

This is made by slaking lime with a small portion of water, after 
which so much water is added as to give it the consistence of cream. 
It is then allowed to settle for some time, and the superfluous water 
is poured ofi", and the sediment is suffered to remain till evaporation 
reduces it to a proper thickness for use. For some kinds of work, it 
is necessary to add a small portion of hair. 

STUCCO FOR INSIDE OF WALLS. 

This stucco consists of fine stuff already described, and a portion 
of fine washed sand, in the proportion of one of sand to three of fine 
stuff. Those parts of interior walls are finished with this stucco 
which are intended to be painted. In using this material, great care 
must be taken that the surface be perfectly level, and to secure this 
it must be well worked with a floating tool or wooden trowel. - Tliis 
is done by sprinkling a little water occasionally on the stucco, and 
rubbing it in a circular direction with the float, till the surface has 
attained a high gloss. The durability of the work very much de- 
pends upon the care with which this process is done ; for if it be not 
thoroughly worked, it is apt to cra^k. 



builders' CE3IENT. 83 



HIGGINS' STUCCO. 

To fifteen pounds of the best stone lime, adj fourteen pounds of 
bone ashes, finely powdered, and about ninety-five pounds of clean, 
washed sand, quite dry, either coarse or fine, according to the 
nature of the work in hand. These ins^redients must be intimately 
mixed, and kept from the air till wanted. When required for use, 
it must be mixed up into a proper consistence for working with 
lime water, and used as speedily as possible. 

GAUGE STUFF. 

This is chiefly used for mouldings and cornices which are run or 
formed with a wooden mould. It consists of about one-fifth of plas- 
ter of Paris, mixed gradually with four-fifths of fine stuff. When 
the work is required to set very expeditiously, the proportion of 
piaster of Paris is increased. It is often necessary that the plaster 
to be used should have the property of setting immediately it is laid 
on, and in all such cases gauge stuff is used, and consequently it is 
extensively employed for cementing ornaments to walls or ceilings, 
as well as for casting the ornaments themselves. 

COMPOSITION. 

This is frequently used, instead of plaster of Paris, for the orna- 
mental parts of buildings, as it is more durable, and becomes in time 
as hard as stone itself. It is of great use in the execution of the 
decorative parts of architecture, and also in the finishings of picture 
frames, being a cheaper method than carving by nearly eighty per 
cent. 

It is made as follows : — Two pounds of the best whitening, one 
pound of glue, and half a pound of linseed oil are heated together, 
the composition being continually stirred until the difterent substan- 
ces are thoroughly incorporated. Let the compound cool, and then 
lay it on a stone covered with powdered whitening, and heat it well 
until it becomes of a tough and firm consistence. It may then be 
put by for use, covered with wet cloths to keep it fresh. When 
wmted for use, it must be cut into pieces, adapted to the size of the 
mould, into which it is forced by a scrcAV press. The ornament, 
or cornice, is fixed to the frame or wall with glue or with white 
lead. 

FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS. 

The nature and condition of the soil upon which houses are to be 
built should receive far more attention than is usually bestowed upon 
such subjects. A soil which is spongy and damp, or contains much 
loose organic matter, is generally unhealthy ; whereas a dry, porus 
soil affords a healthy site for buildings. Wherever we find a soil de- 
ficient in gravel or sand, or where gravel and sand-beds are underlaid 
with clay, there should be a thorough sub-soil drainage, because the 
clay retains the water, and a house buiit in such a spot would other- 
wise always be damp and unhealthy. 



84 BUILDERS* CEMENTS. 

When the sub-soil is swampy, which is the case with many portions 
of various cities that have been filled in with what is called made 
earthy fever is liable to prevail in houses built in such localities, 
owing to the decay of organic matter underneath, and its ascension 
in the form of gas through the soil. When good drainage cannot be 
eifected in such situations, and it is found necessary to build houses 
on them, they should all have solid floors of concrete, laid from the 
outside of the foundations and covering the whole area over which 
the structure is erected. These floors tend to prevent dampness in 
houses, consequently they are more comfortable and health}^ than 
they otherwise would be. Such floors also tend to prevent the crack- 
ing of the walls, owing to the solidity and firmness imparted to their 
foundations. 

CONCRETE FLOORS. 

The lower floors of all the cellai's of houses should be composed of a 
bed of concrete about three inches thick. This would tend to render 
them dry, and more healthy, and at the same time prevent rats from 
burrowing under the walls from the outside, and coming up under 
the floor — the method pursued by these vermin w^here houses are 
erected on a sandy soil. This concrete should be made of washed 
gravel and hydraulic cement. Common mortar mixed with pounded 
brick and washed gravel, makes a concrete for floors nearly as good 
as that formed with hydraulic cement. Such floors become very hard, 
and are much cheaper than those of brick or flagstones. 

FIRE-PROOF COMPOSITION TO RESIST FIRE FOR FIVE HOURS. 

Dissolve, in cold water, as much pearlash as it is capable of holding 
in solution, and wash or daub with it all the boards, wainscoting, 
timber, &c. Then diluting the same liquid with a little water, add to 
it such a portion of fine yellow clay as will make the mixture the same 
consistence as common paint ; stir in a small quantity of paperhang- 
er's flour paste to combine both the other substances. Give three 
coats of this mixture. When dry, apply the following mixture: — 
Put into a pot equal quantities of finely pulverized iron filings, brick 
dust, and ashes : pour over them size or glue water ; set the whole 
near a fire, and when warm stir them well together. With this liquid 
composition, or size, give the wood one coat ; and on its getting dry, 
give it a second coat. It resists fire for five hours, and prevents the 
wood from ever bursting into flames. It resists the ravages of fire, 
so as only to be reduced to coal oij^mbers, without spreading the con- 
fl I (^ration by additional flames ; by which five clear hours are gained 
in removing valuable efiects to a place of safety, as well as rescuing 
the lives of all the fiimily from d mger ! Furniture, chairs, tables, 
&c., particularly staircases, may be so protected. Twenty pounds of 
finely sifted yellow clay, a pound and a half of flour for making the 
piste, and one pound of pearlash, are sufficient to prepare a square 
rood of deal-boards 



MISCELLAXCOO'S RECEIPTS. 85 

MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 



TO POLISH WAINSCOT AND MAHOGANY. 

A very good polish for wainscot may be made in the following 
manner : Take as much beeswax as required, and, placing it in a 
glazed earthen pan, add as much spirits of wine as will cover it, and 
let it dissolve without heat. Add either one ingredient as is required, 
to reduce it to the consistence of butter. When this mixture is well 
rubbed into the grain of the wood, and cleaned off with clean linen, 
it gives a good gloss to the work. 

IMITATION OF MAHOGANY. 

Plane the surface smooth, and rub with a solution of nitrous acid. 
Then apply with a soft brush one ounce of dragon's blood, dissolved 
in about a pint of alcohol, and with a third of an ounce of carbonate of 
soda, mixed and filtered. When the brilliancy of the polish dimin- 
ishes, it may be x'estored by the use of a little cold drawn linseed oiL 

FURNITURE VARNISH. 

White wax six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint : dissolve by a 
gentle heat. Used to polish wood by friction. 

TO MAKE GLASS PAPER. 

Take any quantity of broken glass (that with a greenish hue is 
the best), and pound it in an iron mortar. Then take severel sheets 
of paper, and cover them evenly w'th a thin coat of glue, and, hold- 
ing them to the fii-e, or placing them upon a hot piece of wood or 
plate of iron, sift the pounded glass over them. Let the several 
sheets remain till the glue is set, and shake off the superfluous pow- 
der, which will do again. Then hang up the papers to dry and 
harden. Paper made in this manner is much superior to that gene- 
rally purchased at the shops, which chiefly consists of fine snnd. To 
obtain different^egrees ot fineness, sieves of ditt'erent degrees of fine- 
ness must be U3ed, Use thick paper. 

TO MAKE STONE PAPER. 

As, in cleaning wood-work, particularly deal and other sofk 
woods, one process is sometimes found to answer better than another, 
we may describe the manner of manufacturing a stone paper, which, 
in some cases, will be preferred to sand paper, as it produces a good 
f ice, and is less liable to scratch the work. Having prepared the 
paper as already described, take any quantity of powdered pumice- 
stone, and sift it over the paper through a sieve of moderate fineness. 
When the surfixce has hardened, repeat the process till a tolerably 
thick coat has been formed upon the paper, which, when dry, will 
be fit for use. 



86 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 



WHITEWASH. 

The best method of making a whitewash for outside exposure is to 
sLick half a bushel of lime in a barrel, add one pound of common 
Bait, half a pound of the sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet milk. 

PAINT FOR COATING WIRE WORK. 

Boil good linseed oil with as much litharge as will mak it of the 
consistency to be laid on with the brush ; add lampblack at the rate 
of one part to every ten, by weight of the litharge ; boil three hours 
over a gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner than the lollow- 
ing coats. 

TO BLEACH SPONGE. 

Soak it well in dilute muriatic acid for twelve hours. Wash well 
with water, to remove the lime, then immerse it in a solution of hypo- 
sulphite of soda, to which dilute muriatic acid has been added a mo- 
ment before. After it is bleached sufficiently remove it, wash again, 
and dry it. It may thus be bleached almost snow white. 

LAC VARNISH FOR TINES. 

Grape vines may be pruned at any period without danger from 
loss of bleeding, by simply covering the cut parts with varnish made 
by dissolving stick-lac in alcohol. The lac varnish soon dries, and 
forms an impenetrable coat to rain ; it may also be applied with ad- 
vantage in coating the wounds ot young trees. 

RAZOR PASTE. 

1. Levigated oxide of tin (prepared putty powder) 1 oz. ; pow- 
dered oxalic acid 1-4 oz. ; powdered gum 20 grs. ; make it into a 
stitf paste with water, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop. 
With very little friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and 
its efficiency is still further increased by moistening it. 

2. Emery reduced to an impalpable powder 2 parts ; spermaceti 
ointment 1 part , mix together, and rub it over the strop. 

3. Jewellers' rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal parts ; mix. 

LEATHER VARNISH- 

Durable leather varnish is composed of boiled linseed oil, in which 
a drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. It is colored with lamp- 
black. This varnish is used for making enamelled leather. Common 
leather varnish, which is used as a substitute for blacking, is made 
of thin lac-varnish colored with ivory black. 

TO KEEP TIRES TIGHT ON WHEELS. 

Before putting on the tires fill the felloes with linseed oil, which is 
done by heating the oil in a trough to a boiling heat, and keeping 
the wheel, with a stick through the hub, in the oil, for an hour The 
wheel is turned round until every feUp^ is kept in the oil one hour. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 87 



CUTTING GLASS. 

To cut bottles, shades, or other gLiss vessels neatly, heat a rod of 
iron to redness, and having filled your vessel the exact height you 
wish it to be cut, with oil of any kind, you proceed very gradually to 
dip the red hot iron into the oil, which, heating all along the surface, 
suddenly the glass chips and cracks right round, when you can lift 
off the upper portion clean by the surface of the oil. 

PREPARED LIQUID GLUE. 

Take of best white glue IG ounces ; white lead, dry, 4 ounces ; 
rain water 2 pints ; alcohol 4 ounces. AVith constant stirring dis- 
solve the glue and lead in the water by means of a water-bath. Add 
the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly pour 
into bottles while it is still hot. 

LIQUID GLUES. 

Dissolve 33 parts of best (Buffalo) glue on the steam bath in a 
porcelain vessel, in £6 parts of water. Then add gradually, stirring 
constantly, 3 parts of aqua fortis, or as much as is sufficient to pre- 
vent the glue from hardening when cool. Or, dissolve one part of 
powdered alum in 120 of water, add 120 parts of glue, 10 of acetic 
acid and 40 of alcohol, and digest. 

MARINE GLUE. 

Dissolve 4 parts of India rubber in 34 parts of coal tar naphtha — 
aiding the solution with heat and agitation, add to it 64 parts of 
powdered shellac, which must be heated in the mixture, till the 
wdiole is dissolved. While the mixture is hot it is poured upon metal 
plates in sheets like leather. When required for use, it is heated in 
a pot, till soft, and then applied with a brush to the surfaces to be 
joined. Two pieces of wood joined with this glue can scarcely be 
sundered. 

AX EXCELLENT PASTE FOR EXVELOPES. 

Mix in equal quantities gum-arabic (substitute dextrine) and 
water in a phial, place it near a stove, or on a furnace register, and 
stir or shake it well, until it dissolves. Add a little alcohol to pre- 
vent its souring. 

DEXTRIXE, OR BRITISH GVr 

Dry potato-starch heated from 300° to 600° uLCil it becomes brown, 
soluble in cold Avater, and ceases to turn blue with iodine. Used by 
calico printers and others, instead of gum arable. 

GUM MUCILAGE. 

A little oil of cloves poured into a bottle containing gum mucilage 
prevents the latter from becoming sour and putrid ; this essential oil 
possesses great antiseptic powers. 



68 MISCKLLAXEOL^S RECEIPTS. 



FLOUR PASTE. 

Too numerous to mention are the little conveniences of having a 
little ilour paste always at hand, as those made of any of the gums 
impart a glaze to printed matter, and make it rather difficult to read. 
Dissolve a tablespoonful of alum in a quart of warai witer, and when 
cold, stir in as much flour as will give it the consistency of thick 
cream, being particular to beat up all the lumps, then stir in as 
much powdered resin as will stand on a dime, then throw in half a 
dozen cloves, merelj^ to give a pleasant odor. Next, have a vessel on 
the fire which has a teicupful or more of boiling water, pour the 
flour mixture on the boiling water, stir it well all the time ; in a very 
few minutes rt will be of the consstence of mush ; pour it out in an 
earthen or china vessel , let it cool ; lay a cover on it, and put it 
in a cool place. It will keep for months. AVhen needed for use, take 
out a portion and soften it with warm water. Keep it covered an 
inch or two in water to prevent the surface from drying up 

SEALING-WAX FOR FRUIT-CAXS. 

Beeswax, J oz. ; English vermillion, IJ ozs. ; gum shellac, 24 ozs. ; 
rosin, 8 ozs. Take some cheap iron vessel that 3^ou can always keep 
for the purpose, and put in the rosin and melt it, and stir in the ver- 
million. Then add the shellac, slowly, and stir that in, and afterward 
the beeswax. When wanted fur use at any after time, set it upon a 
slow fire and melt it so you can dip bottle-nozzles in. For any pur- 
pose, such as an application to trees, where 3^ou want it tougher than 
the above preparation will make it, add a little more beeswax, and 
leave out the vermillion. 

If the vermillion is left out in the above, the wax will be all the 
better for it, as it is merely used for coloring purposes. 

FUSIBLE METAL. 

1. Bismuth 8 parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 3 parts ; melt together. 
Melts below 212 degrees Fahr. 2. Bismuth 2 parts ; lead 5 parts ; 
tin 3 parts. Melts in boiling water. 3. Lead 3 parts; tin 2 parts; 
bismuth 5 parts ; mix. Melts at 197 deg. Fahr. 

Remarks, The above are used to make toy-spoons, to surprise 
children by their melting in hot liquors ; and to form pencils for 
writing on asses' skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt harts- 
horn into it. 

METALLIC CEMENT. 

M. Greshiem states that an alloy of copper and mercury, prepared 
as follows, is capable of attaching itself firmly to the surfaces of 
metal, glass, and porcelain. From twenty to thirty parts of finely 
divided copper, obtained by the reduction of oxide of copper with 
hydrogen, or by precipitation from solution of its sulphate with 
zinc, are made into a paste with oil of vitrei and seventy parts of 
mercury added, the whole being well triturated. When the amal- 
gamation is complete, the acid is removed by washing with boiling 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 89 

water, and the compound allowed to cool. In ten or twelve hours, 
it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a brilliant polish, and to 
scrat^-li the surface of tin or gold. By heat it assumes the consis- 
tence of wax ; and, as it does not contract en cooling, M. Greshiem 
recommends its use by dentists fur stopping teeth. 

ARTIFICIAL GOLD. 

This is a new metallic alloy which is now very extensively used in 
France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper 100 parts, zinc, or 
preferably tin 17 parts, magnesia G parts, sal ammoniac 3-6 parts, 
quick lime 1-8 parts, tartar of commerce 9 parts, are mixed as fol- 
lows : The copper is first melted, hen the magnesia, s\l ammoniac, 
lime, and tartar, are then added, separately and by degrees, in the 
form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about hall an 
hour, so as to mix thoroughl}^ ; and then the zinc is added in sm ill 
grains by throwing it on the suiface and stirring till it is entirely 
fused ; the crucible is then covered and the fusion maintained for 
about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed and the alloy is 
ready for casting. 

It has a fine grain, is malleable and takes a splendid polish. It 
does not corrode readily, and for many purposes is an excellent sub- 
stitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored by 
a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc the alloy 
will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, and must 
ultimately attain equal popularity here. 



The or-molu of the brass founder, popularly known as an imitation 
of red gold, is extensively used by the French workmen in metals. 
It is generally found in combination with grate and stove work. It 
is composed of a greater portion of copper and less zinc than ordi- 
nary brass, is cleaned readily by means of acid, and is burnished with 
facility. To give this material the rich appearance, it is not unfre- 
quently brightened up after " dipping " (that is cleaning in acid) by 
means of a scratch brush (a brush made of fine brass wire), the 
action of which helps to produce a very brilliant gold-like surface. 
It is protected from tarnish by the application of lacker. 

BLAXCIIED COPPER. 

Fuse 8 ounces of copper and 4 ounce of neutral arsenical salt, with 
a flux made of calcined borax, charcoal dust and powdered glass. 

BROWNING GUN BARRELS. 

The tincture of iodine diluted with one-half its bulk of water, is a 
superior liquid for browning gun barrels. 

SILVERING POWDER FOR COATING COPPER. 

Nitrate of silver 30 grains, common salt 30 grains, cream of tar- 
ar 34 drachms ; mix, moisteii with water, and apply, 

&* 



90 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 



ALLOY FOR JOURNAL BOXES. 



The best alloy for journal boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 
24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the 
tin, and lastly the antimony. It should be first run into ingots, then 
melted and cast in the form required for the boxes. 



ALLOY FOR BELLS OF CLOCKS. 



The bells of the pendules, or ornamental clocks, made in Paris, are 
eomposed of copper 72.00, tin 26.56, iron 1.44, in 100 parts. 



AN ALLOY FOR TOOLS. 



An alloy of 1000 parts of copper and 14 of tin is said to furnish 
tools, which hardened and sharpened in the manner of the ancients, 
atlbrd an edge nearly equal to that of steel. 



ALLOY FOR CYMBALS AND GONGS. 



An alloy for cymbals and gongs is made of 100 parts of copper with 
about 25 of tin. To give this compound the sonorous property in 
the highest degree, the piece should be ignited after it is cast, and 
then plunged immediately into cold water. 

SOLDER FOR STEEL JOINTS. 

Silver 19 pennyweights, copper 1 pennyweight, brass 2 penny- 
weights. Melt under a ooat of charcoal dust. 

SOFT GOLD SOLDER. 

Is composed of four parts gold, one of silver, and one of copper. 
It can be made softer by adding brass, but the solder becomes more 
liable to oxidize. 



Allow dull files to lay in diluted sulphuric acid until they are bit 
deep enough 

TO PREVENT RUSTING. 

Boiled linseed oil will keep polished tools from rusting if it is 
allowed to dry on them. Common sperm oil will prevent them from 
rusting for a short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently 
applied to polished tools exposed to the weather. 

ANTI-ATTRITION, AND AXLE-GREASE. 

One part of fine black lead, ground perfectly smooth, with four 
parts of lard. 

TO GALYANtZE. 

Take a solution of nitro-muriate of gold (gold dissolved in a mix- 
ture of aquafortis and muriatic acid) and add to a gill of it a pint 
of ether or alcohol, then immerse your copper chain in it for about 
15 minutes, when it Avill be coated with a film of g'»ld. The copper 
must be perfectly clean and free from oxyd, grease, or dirt, or it will 
^ot tak^ on the gold. 



BiASS, BRONZE, BELL AND BRITANNIA METAL. 91 

RARE AND VALUABLE COMPOSITlONa 

Receipts for the use of Mechanists, Iron and Brass Founders, 
Tinmen, Coppersmiths, Turners, Dentiats, Finishers oj Brass, 
Britannia, and German Silver, and for other useful and im- 
fortant purposes in the Practical Arts, 

The larger number of the following Receipts are the result of 
inquiries and experiments by a practical operative. Most of those 
which relate to the mixing of metals and to the fini>^hing o! manufac- 
tured articles, have been thoroughly tested by him, and will be found 
to produce the results desired and expected. The others have beeo 
collected from eminent scientific works. 

No. 1. Yellow Brass, /or Turning. — (Common article. J^Co^^qz. 
20 lbs.; Zinc, 10 lbs.; Lead from 1 to 5 ozs. 
Put in the Lead last before pouring off. 

JNo. 2. Red Brass, /or Turning. — Copper, 24 lbs.; Zinc, 5 Ibs.j 
Lead, 8 ozs. 

Put in the Lead last before pouring off. 

No. 3. Red Brass, /ree, /or Turning. — Copper, 160 lbs.; Zinc, 60 
lbs.; Lead, 10 lbs.; Antimony, 44 ozs. 

No. 4. Another Brass, /or Tu^ming. — Copper, 32 lbs.; Zinc, 10 
lbs.; Lead, 1 lb. 

No. 5 Best Red Brass, for Fine Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. 5 
Zinc, 5 lbs.; Bismuth, 1 oz. 

Put in the Bismuth last before pouring off. 

No. 6. Bronze Metal. — Copper, 7 lbs.; Zinc, 3 lbs.; Tin, 2 lbs. 
No. 7. Bronze Metal. — Copper, 1 lb.; Zinc, 12 lbs.; Tin, 8 lbs. 
No. 8. Bell Metal, /or large Bells. — Copper, 100 lbs.; Tin, from 
20 to 25 lbs. 
No. 9. Bell Metal, /or small Bells.— Copper, 3 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb. 

No. 10. Cock Metal. — Copper, 20 lbs.; Lead, 8 lbs.; Litharge, 1 oz.; 
Antimony, 3 ozs. 

No. 11. Hardening for Britannia.— fT'o be mixed separattly 
from the other ingredients ) — Copper, 2 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb. 

No. 12. GuoD Britannia Metal. —Tin, 150 lbs. ; Copper, 3 lbs.; 
Antimony, 10 lbs. 

No. 13. Britannia Metal, 2d quality. -Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 3 Ibs.j 
Antimony, 9 lbs. 

No. 14. Britannia Metal, for Casting. — Tin ^ 210 lbs.; Copper^ 
4 lbs.; Antimony, 12 lbs. 

No. 15. Britannia Metal, /or Spinning. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia 
Hardening, 4 lbs.; Antimony, 4 lbs. 

No. 16. Britannia M et a l, /or i^f^V^er^. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Harden- 
ing, 8 lbs.; Antimony, 8 lbs. 

No. 17. Bkst Britannia, /or Spouts.— Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs; 
Antimony. 6 lbs. 

No. 18. Best Britannia, /or Spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Hardening:, 
^ lbs.; Andmony, 10 lbs. 



92 GERMAN SILVER, TOMBAC, TUTANIA, AND SOLDERS. 

No. 19. Best Britannia, for Handles. — Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, t 
lbs. 3 Antimony, 5 lbs. 

No. 20. Best Biutannia, /or Lamps, P ilia*' s, and Spouts. -^Thh 
300 lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Antimony. J5 lbs. 

JNo. 21. Casting — Tin, 100 lbs ; Hardening, 5 lbs.; Antimony, 5 lbs 

JS'O. 22. Lining Metal, /or Boxes of Railroad Cars. MixTm, 24 
lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Antimony, 8 lbs. (for a hardening); then add Tin, 72 lbs. 

No. 23. Fine Silvek Colored Metal. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Antimony, 
8 lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Bismuth, 1 lb. 

N o . 24. German Silver, Fi/ st Quality for Casting. — Copper, 50 
lbs.; Zinc, 25 lbs.; Nickel, 25 lbs. 

No. 25. German Silver, Scco7)d Qualify for Casting. — Copper, 50 
lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; Nickel, (best pulverized,) 10 lbs. 

No. 26. German Silver, for Rolling. — Copper, 60 lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; 
Nickel, 25 lbs. 

No. 27. German Silver, /o?* Bells and other Casiivs:''. — Copper 
60 lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; Nickel, 20 lbs.; Lead, 3 lbs.; Iron, (that of tin plate 
being best,) 2 lbs. 

No. 28 Imitation of Silver. — Tin, 3 ozs.; Copper, 4 lbs. 

No. 29. Pinchbeck. — Co|)per, 5 lbs.; Zmc, 1 lb. 

No. 30. Tombac — Copper, 16 lbs.; Tin, I lb ; Zinc, 1 lb. 

No. 31. Red Tombac — Copper, 10 lbs.; Zinc, 1 lb. 

No 32. Hard White Metal —Sheet Brass, 32 ozs.; Lead,2oz8.i 
Tin, 2 ozs.; Zinc, 1 oz. 

No. 33. Metal for Taking Impressions. — Lead, 3 lbs.; Tin, 2 
lbs.; Bismuth, 5 lbs. 

No. 34. Spa.msh Tutania — Iron or Steel, 8 ozs.; Antimon}' 16 ozs.; 
Nitre 3 ozs. 

Melt and harden 8 ozs. Tin with 1 oz. of the above compour.d. 

No. 35. Another Tutania. — Antimony, 4 ozs ; Arsenic, I oz.; Tin. 
2 lbs. 

No. 36. Gun Metal.— Bristol Brass, 112 lbs.; Zinc, 14 lbs.; Tm,7 lbs 

No. 37. Rivet Metal. — Copper, 32 ozs.; Tm, 2 ozs.; Zinc, 1 oz. 

No. 38. Rivet Metal, for Flose.—Coppcr, 6i lbs. ; Tin. 1 lb. 

No. 39. Fusible Alloy, (which nielts in boiling water.) — Bismuth, 
8 ozs.; Tin, 3 ozs.; Lead. 5 ozs. 

No. 40. Fusible Alloy, /or Silverino- Glass. — Tm, 6 ozs.; Lead, 
10 ozs.; Bismuth, 21 ozs ; Mercur_y, a small quantity. 

No. 41. Solder, /or Gold. — Gold, 6 pwts ; Silver, 1 pwt.; Copper, 2 
pwts. 

No 42. SoLDER,/or Silver.— (For the use of Jeweller. s) — Fine Silver 
19 pwts ; Copper, 1 pwt.; Sheet Brass, 10 pwts. 

No. 43 White SoLi)KR,/or Silver. — Silver, I oz ; Tin, 1 oz. . 

No. 44. White Solder for raised Britannia Ware. — Tin, 100 lbs., 
Copper. 3 ozs.; to make it free, add Lead, 3 ozs. 

No 45. Best Soft Solder, for Cast Britannia Ware. — Tin, 8 lbs.*, 
Lead, 5 lbs. 

No. 46. Yellow Soj^per, for Prass or Cr^er. — Copper, 1 Ib'i 
twc, I lb. 



aoLD» StLVfill & COPPER SOLDERS, & DIPPING ACIDS. 93 

No.n. Yellow Solder, ybr Brass or Copper. — (Stronger tlnui 
Vti last.) — Copper, 32 Ibs.j Zinc, 29 lbs.5 Tin, I lb. 

No. 48. Solder, for Copper. — Copper, 10 lbs.; Zinc, 9 lbs. 

No. 49. Black Solder.— Copper, 2 lbs ; Zinc, 3 lbs ; Tin, 2 ou. 

No. 50. Black Solder.— Sheet Brass, 20 lbs.; Tin, 6 lbs.; Zinc, I lb. 

No. 51. Soft Solder. — Tin, 15 lbs.; Lead, 15 lbs. 

No 52. Silver Solder, /or Plated Metal. — Fine Silver, 1 oz.j 
Brass, 10 pwts. 

No. 53. Yellow Dipping Metal.— Copper, 32 lbs.; Zinc, 2 lbs.; 
SoftSolder,2| ozs. 

No. 54. Quick Bright Dipping Acid, for Brass which has been 
crmolovd. — Sulphuric Acid, 1 gall.; Nitric Acid, 1 gall. 

No. 55. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric Acid, 12 lbs.; Nitric Acid, 1 pintj 
Nitre, 4 lbs.; Soot, 2 handiuls ; Brimstone, 2 ozs. 

Pulverize the Brimstone and soak it in water an hour. Add the Nitric Acid last. 

No. 56. Good Dipping Acid, for Cast Brass. — Sulphuric Acid, 

1 qt., Nitre, I qt.; Water, 1 qt. 

A iktle Muriatic Acid may be added or omitted. 

No. 57. Dipping Acid.— Sulphuric Acid, 4 galls.; Nitric Acid, 2 galls.; 
Saturated solution of Sulphate of Iron (Copperas). 1 pint; Solution of 
Sulphate of Copper, 1 qt. 

No. 58. Ormolu Dipping Acid, /or Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric Acid, 

2 galls ; Nitric Acid, 1 pt.; Muriatic Acid, 1 pt.; Water, I pt.; Nitre, 12 lbs 
Put in the Muriatic Acid last, a little at a time and stir the mixture with a stick. 

No. 59. Ormolu Dipping Acid, /or Sheet or Cast Brass. — Sulphu- 
ric Acid, I gall ; Sal Ammoniac. I oz.; Sul|)hur, (in flour,) 1 oz.; Blue V^itriol, 
1 oz.; Saturated Solution of Zinc in Nitric Acid, mixed with an equal 
quantity of Sulphuric Acid, 1 gall. 

No. 60. To Prepare Brass Work for Ormolu Dipping. — If 
the work is oily, boil it in lye; and if it is finished work, filed or turned, dip 
it in old acid, and it is then ready to he ormeloed ; but if it is mifinished, 
and free from oil, pickle it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, 
and then in the old acid, after which it will be ready for ormcloing. 

No. 61. To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips. — Tf the 

work after dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol till it answers 
the purpose. If the work after dipping appears too smooth, add muriatic 
acid and nitre till it gives the right appearance. 

The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the receipts, 
putting in tfhe proper ingredients to strengthen them. Ihey should not be 
allowed to settle, but should be stirred often while using. 

No. 62. TiNNiKG Acid, /or Brass or Zinc. — Muriatic Acid, 1 qt. , 
Zinc, 6 ozs. To a solution of this add. Water, I qt.; Sal Ammoniac, 2 ozs. 

No. 63. A^iNEGAR Bronze, for Brass. — Vineorar, 10 galls.; Blue 
Vitriol, 3 lbs.; Muriatic Acid. 3 lbs; Corrosive Sublimate, 4 grs.; Sal Am- 
monia, 2 lbs.; Alum, 8 ozs. 

No. 64. Directions for Making Lacquer. — Mix the ingredients 
ind let the vessel containing them stand in the sun. or in a place slightly 
warmed three or four days, shaking it frequently till the gum is dissolved 
after which let it settle from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, when the 
clear liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes 
used in making Lacquer, to carry down the impurities. 

No. 65. Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, proofspecific gravity 



94 LACQUERS — VARIOtTS KINt)S— BtlON2£S, ^0. 

not less than 95-IOOths, 2 galls.; Seed Lac, 1 ib.; Gum Copal, 1 oz.; EnglisI 
Saffron, 1 oz.; Annotto. 1 oz. 

No 66. Lacquek, /or Bronzed Brass. — To one pint of the above 
Lacquer, add. Gamboge, I oz.; and after mixing it add an equal quantity of 
the first Lacquer. 

No. 67. Deep Gold Colored Lacquer — Best Alcohol, ^10 ozs. ; 
Spanish Annotio, 8 grs.; Turmeric, 2 drs.; :Shell Lac, ^ oz.; Red Sanders, 
12 grs.; when dissolved add Spirits of Turpentine, 30 drops. 

No. 68. Gold Colored hAcq^VF.R, /or Brass not Dipped. — Alcohol. 
i galls.; Turmeric, 3 lbs.; Gamboge, 3 ozs.; Gum Sanderach, 7 lbs. ; Shell 
Lac, 1^ lb.; Turpentine Varnish, 1 pint. 

No. 69. Gold Colored Lacquer, /or D/;9;p^c^ ^rass. — Alcohol, 36 
ozs.; Seed Lac, 6 ozs.; Amber, 2 ozs.; Gum Gutta, 2 ozs.; Red Sandal 
Wood, 24 grs ; Dragon's Blood, 6U grs. ; Oriental Saffron, 36 grs.; Pulver- 
ized Glass, 4 ozs. 

No. 70. Good Lacquer, /or Brass. — Seed Lac, 6 ozs ; Amber or 
Copal, 2 ozs.; Best Alcohol, 4 galls.; Pulverized Glass, 4 ozs. ; Dragon's 
Blood, 40 grs.; Extract of Red Sandal Wood obtained by water, 30 grs. 

No.7L Lacquer, /or Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 galls.; Seed Lac, 
9 lbs.; Turmeric, 1 lb. to a gallon of the above mixture; Spanish Saffron, 
4 ozs. 

The Saffron is to be added for Bronze work. 

No. 72. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs.; Gamboge, 1 oz.; Shell 
Lac, 3 ozs.; Annotto, 1 oz ; solution of 3 ozs. of Seed Lac in 1 pint of Al- 
cohol ; when dissolved add ^ oz. Venice Turpentine,!- oz. Dragon's Blood, 
will make it dark ; keep it in a warm place four or five days. 

No. 73. Pale Lacquer, /or Tin Plate. — Besi Alcohol, 8 ozs.; Tur- 
meric, 4 drs.; Hay Saffron. 2 scs.; Dragon Blood, 4 scs,; Red Sanders. 1 sc; 
Shell Lac, 1 oz.; Gum Sanderach, 2 drs.; Gum Mastic, 2 drs.; Canada Bal- 
sam, 2 drs.; when dissolved add Spirits ot Turpentine, 80 drops. 

No. 74. Red Lacquer, for Brass. — Aleohol, 8 galls.; Dragon'e 
Blood, 4 lbs.; Spanish Annotio, 12 lbs., Gum Sanderach, 13 lbs. 5 Turpen- 
tine, 1 gall. 

No. 75. Pale Lacquer, /or J5ra55.— Alcohol, 2 galls.; Cape Aloes 
cut small, 3 ozs.; Pale Shell Lac, 1 lb.; Gamboge, 1 oz. 

No 76. Best Lacquer, /or Brass. — Alcohol, 4 galls.; Shell Lac, 
£ lbs.; Amber Gum, 1 lb.; Copal, 20 ozs.; Seed Lac, 3 lbs.; Saffron, to 
color; Pulverized Glass, 8 ozs. 

Ng 77. Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol,! qt.; Annotto, 4 ozs. 

No. 78. Lacquer, for Pilosophical Instruments* — Alcohol, 80 ozs ; 
Gum Gutta, 3 ozs.; Gum Sandarac, 8 ozs.; Gum Elemi, 8 ozs.; Dragon'a 
Blood, 4 ozs ; Seed Lac, 4 ozs.; Terra Merita, 3 ozs.; Saffron, 8 grs.; Pu^ 
verized Glass. 12 ozs. 

No. 79. Brown Bronze Dip— Iron Scales, 1 lb.; Arsenic, 1 ax. 
Muriatic Acid, 1 lb.; Zinc, (solid,) 1 oz. 

Let the Zinc be kept in only while it is in use. 

No. 80 Green Bronze Dip.— Wine Vinegar, 2 qts.; Verditer Greea 
2 ozs.; Sal Ammoniac, 1 oz ; Salt, 2 ozs.; Alum, i oz.; French Berries, 
8 ozs.; boil the ingredients together. 

No. 81. Aquafortis Bronze Dip.— Nitric Acid, 8 ozs.; Muriatic 
/Lcid, Iqt.; Sal Ammoniac, 2 ozs.; Alum. I oz.; Salt, 2 ozs.; Water, 2 galU 
Add the &alt tfter boiling the other iugredieuta, aod use it hot. 



etlONJiES, SILVERING, AND VaRNISHES. '^5 

No. 82. Olive FJronze Dip, for Brass. — Nitric Arid, 3 OiS ; Mun 
•tic Acid, 2 ozs.; add Titanium or Palladium ; when the metal is dissolvee 
add 2 gaiis. pure soft water to each pint of the solution. 

No. 83. Bkown Bronze Paint, /or Copper Vesseis. — Tincture o) 
Steel, 4 ozs.; Spirits of Nitre, 4 ozs. 3 Essence of Dendi, 4 ozs.; Blue 
Vitriol, 1 oz.; Water, ^ pint. 

Mix in a bottle. Apply it with a fine brush, the vessel being lull of boiling water 
Varnish after the application of the bronze. 

No. 81. Bronze, /or all kinds of Metal. — Muriate of Ammonia 'Sal 
Ammoniac), 4 drs.; Oxahc Acid, i dr.; Vinegar, 1 pint. 

Dissolve the Oxalic Acid first. ]>t the work be" clean.' Put on the bronze with a 
brush, repeating the operation as many times as may be necessary. 

No. 85 Bronze Paint, /or Iron or Brass — Chrome Green. 2 lbs.; 
Ivory Black, 1 oz.; Chrome Yellow, 1 cz. ; Good Japan, 1 gill; griiui all 
together and mix with Linseed Oil. 

No. 86. To Bronze Gun Barrels. — Dilute Nitric Acid vvitii Water 
and rub the gun barrels with it ; lay them by for a few days, then rub them 
with Oil and polish them with bees-wax. 

No. 87. For Tinning Brass.— Water, 2 pails full ; Cream of Tar- 
tar, 1-2 lb.; Salt, 1-2 pint. 

Shaved or Grained Tin. — Boil the work in the mixture, keeping it in motion during 
the time of boiling. 

No. 88. Silvering by Heat. — Dissolve 1 oz. of Silver in Nitric 
Acid ; add a small quantity of Salt ; then wash it and add Sal Ammoniac, 
or 6 ozs. of Salt and White Vitriol ; also -^ oz. of Corrosive Sublimale, rub 
them together till they form a paste, rub the piece which is to be Silv^ered 
with the paste, heat it till the Sil¥er runs, after which dip it in a weak /iiriol 
pickle to clean it. 

No. 89. Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 ozs. of Silver with 
3 grains of Corrosive Sublimate; add Tartaric Acid, 4 lbs.; Salt, 8 qts. 

No. 90. Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix Sulphuric Acid, 
1 part; Nitric Acid, 1 pRrt ; Water, 1 part; boil the metal in the mixture 
till it is dissolved, and throw in a little Salt to cause the Silver to subside. 

No. 91. Solvent for Gold. — Mix equal quantities of Nitric and 
Muriatic Acids. 

No. 92. Varnish, for Smooth Mouldincr Patterns. — Alcoho., 1 gall \ 
Shell Lac, 1 lb.; Lamp or Ivory Black, sufficient to color it. 

No 93. Fine Black Varnish, /or Coaches. — Melt in an Iron pot. 
Amber, 32 ozs.; Resin, 6 ozs.; Asphaltum, 6 ozs.; Drying Linseed Oil, 1 pi.) 
when partly cooled add Oil of Turpentine, wormed, 1 pt. 

No. 94. Chinese White Copper. — Copper, 40.4; Nickel, 31.6; 
Zinc, 25.4; and Iron. 2.6 parts. 

No 95. Manheim Gold. — Copper, 3; Zinc, 1 part; and a small 
quantity of Tin. 

No. 96. Alloy of the Standard Measures used ry tub 
British Government. — Copper, 576 ; Tin. 59 ; and Brass, 48 parts. 
No. 97. Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 ; and Zinc, 9 parts. 

No. 98. Speculum Metal. — Copper, 6 ; Tin, 2 ; and Arsenic, 1 pan 
Cr, Copper, 7; Zinc, 3 ; and Tin, 4 parts. 

No. 99. Hard Solder. — Copper, 2; Zinc, 1 part. 

No. 100. Blanched Copper. — Copper, 8; and Arsenic, j pait. 

No. 101. Britannia Metal. — Brass. 4; Tin, 4 parts; when fused, 
•dd Bismuth. 4; and Antimony, 4 parts. 

Thii composition is added at discretion to mcltad Tin. 



'>^ .-HOLDERS AND CEMEKTS. 

N->- 102. Plumber's Sor.DKR— Lead, 3 Tin, 1 part. 

No. 103. Tinman's Solder. — Lead, 1 ; Tin, 1 part. 

No. 104. Pewterer's Soldeii. — Tin, 2 3 Lead, 1 part 

No. 105. Common Pewter. — Tin, 4; Lead, 1 part. 

No. 106. Best Pewter. — Tin, 100 5 Antimony, 17 parts. 

No. 107. A Metal that Expands in Cooling. — Lead, 9 j AaH- 

mony, 2 ; Bismutii, 1 part. 

This Metal is very useful in filling small defects in Iron castings, &c. 

No. 108. Queen's Metal. — Tin, 95 Antimony, I5 Bismuth, 1| 
liead, 1 part. 

No. 109. Mock Platinum. — Brass, 8 5 Zinc, 5 parts. 
No. 110. Silver Coin of the United States. — Pure Silver, 
9; Alloy, I part; the alloy of silver is fine copper. 

No. 111. Gold Coin of the United States. — Pure Gold, 9 ; 
Alloy, 1 part; the alloy of gold is ^ silver and | copper, (not to exceed J 
silver). 

No. 112. Silver Coin of Great Britain. — Pure Silver, 11.1; 
Copper, 9.9 parts. 

No. 113. Gold Coin of Great Britain.— Pure Gold, 11 , Copper 
I part. 

Previous to 1826 Silver formed part of the alloy of Gold coin ; hence the different color 
of English Gold money. 

No. 114. Ring Gold. — Pure Copper, 6J pwts.; Fine Silver, 31 pwts.: 
Pure Gold, 1 oz. and 5 pwts. 

No. 115. Mock Gold. — Fuse together Copper, 16; Platinum, 7; 
Zinc, 1 part. 

When Steel is alloyed with 1-500 part of Platinum, or with 1-500 part of Silver, it is 
rendered much harder, more malleable, and better adapted for every kind of cutting 
Instrument. 

Note. — In making alloys, care must be taken to have the more infusible metals melted 
fir t, and afterwards add the others. 

No. 116. Composition Usfd in Welding Cast Steel. — Bornx 
10; Sal Ammoniac, 1 part ; grind or pound them roughly together ; then 
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to continue the heat 
until all spume has disappeared from the surface. When the liquid appears 
clear, the composition is ready to be poured oat to cool and concrete; 
afterwards beinfr ground to a fine powder, it is ready for use. 

To use this compositinn, the Steel to be Avelded is raised to a heat which maj' be 
expressed by "bright yellow;" it is then dipped among the welding powder, and again 
placed in the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as before, it is then r^ady tt> be 
placed under the hammer. 

No 117. Cast Ikon Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings, of Cast 
fron, 16; Sal Ammoniac, 2; FJour of Sulphur, 1 part; mix them well to- 
gether in a mortar and keep them dry. When required for use, take of the 
mixture, 1 ; clean borings, 20 parts ; mix thoroughly, and add a sufficient 
quantity of water. 

A little grindstone dust added improves the cement. 

No. 118. Booth's Patent Gnv.kS'E, for Railway Axles. — Water! 
pall.; Clean Tallow, 3 lbs.; Palm Oil. 6 lbs.; Common Soda, 4 lb. Or, 
Tallow, 8 lbs.; Palm Oil. 10. ' 

The mixture to be heated to about 210® F., and well stirred till it cools down to about 
W, when it is ready for use. 

No. 119. Cement, for Steam-pipe Joints, ^c.,vnth Faced Flan}rps.-^ 
White l>^ad.inixed,2; R^d Lead, dry, 1 part; grind or otherwise mix them 
to a consistence of thin putty, apply interposed layers with one or two 
thicknesses of canvas or gauze wire, as the necessity of the case may be. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER, ZINC, AND TIN. 



9? 



No. 120. Soft Cement, for Steam -hnilers, Steam pipes, S^^c. — Red 
or White Lead, in oil, 4 3 Iron boring-s, 2 lo J parts. 

No. 121. Hard Cement. — Iron Borings and Salt Water, and a small 
quantity of Sal Ammoniac with Fresh Water. 

No. 122. Staining Wood and Ivoky. — Yellow. — Dilute jNitric Acid 
will produce it on wood. 

Red. — An infusion of Brazil Wood in stale urine, in the proportion of a 

f)ound to a gallon for wood 5 to be laid on when boiling hot, and should be 
aid over with alum water before it dries. Or, a solution of Dragon's Blood 
in spirits of wine, may be used. /^ 

Black. — Strong- solution of Nitric Acid, for wood or ivorfT 
Mahogany. — Brazil, Madder, and Logwood, dissolved in water and put 
on hot. 

Blue. — Ivory may be stained thus : Soak it in a solution of Verdigris in 
Nitric Acid, which will turii it ^rem; then dip it into a solution of Pearlash 
boiling' hot. 

Purple. — Soak ivory in a solution of Sal Ammoniac into four times its 
weight of Nitrous Acid. 

TAi^LE OF ALLOYS. - 



Alloys having a density greater than the 
Mean of their Constituents. 

Gold and zinc. l Silver & antimony. 
Gold and tin. M'opper and zi)ic. 

Gold and bismuth. Copper and iin.[um 
Gold and antimony. Copper and palladi- 



Gold and ccbalt. 
Silver and zinc. 
Silver and lead. 
Silver and tin. 
Sih erand bismuth 



Copper & bismuth 
Lead and antiniony 
Platinum & molyb- 
denum, [muth. , 
Palladium and bis- i 



Alloys having a densit}- less than the Mean 
of their Constituents. 



Gold and silver. 
Gold and iron. 
Gold and lead. 
Gold and copper. 
Gold and iridium. 
Gold and nickel. 
Silver and copper. 
Silver and lead. 



Iron and bismuth. 
I Iron and antimony. 
I Iron and lead. 
! Tin and lead. 
jTin and palladium. 
I Tin and antimony. 
I Nickel and arsenic. 
; Zinc and antimony. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC, AND OF COPPER AND TLN. 









'sii 




Composition by 
Weight per cent. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Colour. 


Ultimate 
('ohesivo 
Strength 
an In. s(] 
liar, in U 


Characteristic Properties, &c. 


Copper 


8667 


Tile red. 


24.6 


.Malleable. 


]()0 00 Zinc 


6895 


Bluish jrrey. 


15.2 


Brittle. 


83.02-1- J 6.98 


8415 


Yellowish red. 


13.7 


Bath metal. 


79.G5+20.35 


8448 


do. do. 


14.7 


Dutch brass. 


74.58+25.42 


8397 


Pale yellow. 


13.1 


Rolled sheet brass. 


60.13+:33.82 


8299 


Full yellow. 


12.5 


British brass. 


49 47H-.50..53 


8230 


do. do. 


9.2 


German brass. 


32.S5-I-67.15 


8283 


Deep yellow. 


19.3 


Watchmakers' bras*. 


30 30-f 69.70 


7836 


Silver white. 


2.2 


\ery brittle. 


24.504-75.50 


7449 


Ash ffrey. 


3.1 


Brittle. 


19.65-i-S0..35 


7371 


do. 


1.9 


White button metal. 


Tin 


7291 


White. 


2.7 




84.29+15.71 


8561 


Reddish yellow. 


16.1 


Gun metal. 


81.10+18.90 


8459 


Yellowish red. 


17.7 


Gun metal and bronze. 


78.97+21.03 


8728 


do. do. 


13.6 


Hard, mill brasses. 


34.92+65.08 


8065 


White. 


1.4 


Small beils. 


15.17+84.83 


7447 


Very white. 


3.1 


Speculum metal. 


11.82+83.18 


7472 


do. do. 


3.1 


Files, touch. 



Note. — No simple binary alloy of copper and zinc, or ofcopper and tin work* 
as pleasanllv in turning, planing, or filing, as if combined with a small propor- 
tion of a third lusihle metal J generally lead is added to copper and zaic, and 
ZAiic to Conner and tin. 



2Aac to copper and tin. 



98 ALLOYS FOR BUONZE. tALtJABLE ALLOYS. 

To Polish Brass. — When the Brass is made smooth by turning or 
filing- with a very line file, it may be rubbed with a smooth fine gramed 
stone, or with charcoal and water. When it is made quite smooth and free 
from scratches it may be polished with rotten stone and oil^ alcohol or spirits 
t)f turpentine. 

To Clean Brass. — If there is any oily substance on the Brass boil 
it in a solution of potash, or strong lye. Mix equal quantities of Nitric 
and Sulphuric Acids in a stone or earlhern vessel, let it stand a few hours, 
stirring it occasionally with a stick, then dip the Brass in the solution, 
but take it out immediately and rinse it in soft water^ and wipe it in saw 
dust till it is dry. 

Glue. — Powdered Chalk added to common Glue strengthens it. A 
Glue which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 pound of 
Glue in 2 quarts of skimmed" Milk. 

ALLOYS FOR BRONZE. 

Pr'^fessOi' Hoffman, of the Prussian artillery, has made experiments with 
the view of obtaining a good statuary bronze, and recommends the alloys 
ranging between the two following admixtures : — 
1st. To produce the reddest bronze. 

88.75 Copper Zinc (7 atoms copper, 1 atom zinc). 
n.25 Copper Tin (3 atoms copper, 1 atom tin). 

100-00 



2nd. To produce a cheap bronze, with a bright yellow colof; almost 
golden. 
93.5 Copper Zinc (2 atoms copper, 1 atom zinc). 
6.0 Copper Tin (3 atoms copper, 1 atom tin). 

100.0 



VALUABLE ALLOYS. 

The " Paris Scientific Review'' has published, for the benefit of the 
industrious workers in metals, the best receipts for composing all the various 
factitious metals used in the arts 3 the following are a few : — 

Statuary Bronze.— Daroet has discovered that this is composed of 
copper, 91.45 zinc, 5.5 ; lead, 1.7 5 tin, 1.4. 

Bronze for Cannon of Large Calibre.— Copper, 90 3 tin, 7. 

PiNCHBECK.«-Copper, 5 3 zinc, L 

Bronze for Cannon of Small Calibre.— Copper, 93 3 tin, 7. 

Bronze for Mepals. — Copper, 100; tin. 8. 

Alloy for Cymbals.— Copper, 80 3 tin, 20. 

Metal for the Mirrors of Reflecting Telescopes. — Copper^ 
100 3 tin, 50. 

White Argentan. — Copper, 83 nickel, 3 3 zinc, 35; this beautiful 
composition is in imitation ofsilver. 

Chinese Silver. — M. Mairer discovered the following proportions :^— 
Silver, 2 5; copper, 65.24 3 zinc, 19.52 ; nickel, 13; cobalt of iron, 0.l2. 

Tutenag.— Copper, 8; nickel, 3; zinc, 5. 

Printing Characters. — Lead, 4; antimony, L For stereotype 
plates — Lead, 9 3 antimony, 2 3 bismuth^ 2. 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



AND 



INSTKUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 




INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. lOl 

INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 

To facilitate the construction of geometrical figures, we add a short de- 
scription of a few useful instruments which do not belong to the common 
pocket-case. 

Let there be a flat ruler, AB, from one to two feet in g ^ 
length, for which the common Gunter's scale may be sub- 
stituted 3 and, secondly, a triangular piece of wood, a, b, c, 
flat, and about the same thickness as the ruler : the sides, 
ab and be, of which are equal to one another, and form a 
rght angle at b. For the convenience of sliding, there is ^ 
usually a hole in the middle of the triangle^ as may be seen in the figure. 

By means of these simple instruments many very useful geometrical 
problems may be performed. Thus, to draw a line through a given point 
parallel to a given line. Lay the triangle on the paper so that one of its 
sides will coincide with the given line to which the parallel is to be drawn ; 
then, keeping the triangle steady, lay the ruler on the paper, with its edge 
applied to either of the other sides of the triangle ; then, keeping the ruler 
firm, move the triangle along its edge, up or down, to the given point 5 the 
side of the triangle which was placed on the given line will always keep 
parallel to itself, and hence a parallel may be drawn through the given point. 

To erect a perpendicular on a given line, and from any given point in 
that line, we have only to apply the ruler to the given line, and place the 
triangle so, that its right angle shall touch the given point in the line, and 
one of the sides about the right angle, placed to the edge of the ruler — the 
other side will give the perpendicular required. 

If the given point be either above or below the line, the process is equally 
easy. Place one of the sides of the triangle about the right angle on the 
given line, and the ruler on the side opposite the right angle, then slide the 
triangle on the edge of the ruler till the given point from which the perpen- 
dicular is to be drawn is on the other side, then this side will give the per- 
pendicular. 

Other problems may be performed with these instruments, the method of 
doing which it will be easy for the reader to contrive for himself. 

When arcs of circles of great diameter are to be drawn, the use of a 
compass may be substituted by a very simple contrivance. Draw the chord 
of the arc to be described, and place a pin at each 
extremity, A and B, then place two rulers jointed 
at C, and forming an angle, ACB equal to the sup- 
plement of half the given number of degrees ; that 
is to say, the number ot degrees which the arc 

whose chord given is to contain, is to be halved, and this half being sub- 
tracted from 180 degrees, will give the degrees which form the angle at 
which the rulers are placed^ that is, the angle ACB, This bein^ don§, the 




102 INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 

edges of the rulers are moved along against the pins, and a pencil at C will 
describe the arc required. 

l^arge circles may be described by a contrivance equally simple. On 
an axle, a foot or a foot and a half long, there are placed two 
wheels, M and F, of which one is fixed to the axle, namely F, 
and the other is capable of being shifted to different parts of ]vic 
the axle, and, by means of a thumb-screw, made capable of 
being fixed at any point on the axle. These wheels are of dif- 
ferent diameters, say of 3 and 6 inches, the fixed wheel F being the largest 
This instrument being moved on the paper, the circles M and F will roll, 
and describe circles of different radii : the axle will always point to the 
centre of these circles, and there will be this proportion : 

As the diameter of the large wheel is to the difference of the diameters 
of the two wheels, so is the radius of the circle to be described by the large 
wheel to the distance of the two wheels on the axle. 

if the diameters of the wheels are as abuve stated, and it is required to 
describe a circle of 3 feet radius, then from the above proportion we have 
6:6 — 3 : : 3 feet or 36 inches : 18 inches = the distance of the two wheels, 
to describe a circle 6 feet in diameter. 

It may be observed, that it wili be best to make the difference of the 
wheels greater if large circles are to be described, as then a shorter instru- 
ment will serve the purpose. 

We will conclude those instructions, by making a few remarks on the 
Diagonal Scale and Sector, the great use of the latter of which, especially, 
is seldom explained to the young mechanic. 

The diagonal scale to be found on the plain scale in common pocket- 
cases of instruments, is a contrivance for measuring very small divisions of 
lines 5 as, for instance, hundredth parts of an inch. 

Suppose the accompanying cut to represent an enlarged 

view of two divisions of the diagonal scale, and the bottom and 

top lines to be divided into two parts, each representing the 2- 

tenth part of an inch. Now, the perpendicular lines BC, AD, 4- 

are each divided into ten equal parts, which are joined by the 6- 

crossing lines, 1, 2, 3, 4, &.C., and the diagonals BF, DE, are V 

drawn as in the fig^ure. JNow, as the division FC is the tenth 9- 

lo 

part of an inch, and as the line FB continually approaches C F 

nearer and nearer to BC, till it meets it in B, it will follow, that the part of 
the line 1 cut off by this diagonal will be a tenth part of FC, because Bl is 
only one-tenth part of BC ; so, likewise, 2 will represent two-tenth parts, 
3 three-tenth parts, and so on to 9, which is nine-tenth parts, and 10, ten- 
lenth pans, or the whole tenth of an inch j so that, by means of this diago- 
nal, we arrive at divisions equal to tenth parts of tenth parts of an inch, or 
hundredths of an inch. With this consideration, an examination of the 
Spale Uself will ^asil^' sJiony the whwle matter, l\ may be observed, 




THE SECTOR. 103 

that if half an inch and the quarter of an inch be divided, in the same man- 
ner, into tenths and tenths of tenths, we may get thus tvvo-hundredlh and 
four-hundredth parts of an inch. 

THE SECTOR. 

This very useful instrument consists of two equal rulers each six inches 
long, joined tog-ether by a brass folding joint. These rulers are generally 
made of boxwood or ivory 5 and on the face of the instrument, several lines 
or scales are engraven Some of these lines or scales proceed from the 
centre of the joint, and are called sectorial lines, to distinguish them from 
others which are drawn parallel tr> the edge of the instrument, similar to 
those on the common Gunter's scale. 

The sectorial lines are drawn twice on the same face of the instrument j 
that is to say, each line is drawn on both legs. Those on each face are, 

A scale of equal parts, marked L, 

A line of chords, marked C, 

A line of secants, marked S, 

A line of polygons, marked P, or Pol. 
These sectorial lines are marked on one face of the instrument 3 and on the 
other there are the following 5 

A line of sines, marked S, 

A line of tangents, marked T, 

A line of tangents to a less radius, marked t. 
This last line is intended to supply the defect of the former, and extends 
from about 45 to 75 degrees. 

The lines of chords, sines, tangents, and secants, but not the line of poly- 
gons, are numbered from the centre, and are so disposed as to form equal 
angles at the centre 5 and it follows from this, that at whatever distance the 
sector is opened, the angles which the lines form, will always be respectively 
equ d. The distance, therefore, between 10 and 10, on the two lines marked 
L, will be equal to the distance of 60 and 60 on the two lines of chords, and 
also to 90 and 90 on the two lines of sines, «fec. at any particular opening of 
the sector. 

Any extent measured with a pair of compasses, from the centre of Jhe 
joint to any division on the sectorial lines, is called a lateral distance j and 
an}- extent taken from a point in a line on the one leg, to the like point on 
the similar line on the other leg, is called a transverse or parallel distance. 

With these remarks, we shall now proceed to explain the use of the sec- 
tor, in so far as it is likely to be serviceable to mechanics. 

USE OF THE LINE OF LINES. 

This line, as was before observed, is marked L, and its uses are, 
To Divide a line into any number of equal parts : Take the length of the 
luie by the compasses, and placing one of the points on that nuinber in thq 



104 THE SECTOR. 

line of lines which denotes the number of parts into which the given line ig 
to be divided, open the sector till the other point of the compasses touches 
the same division on the line of lines marked on the other leg ; then, the 
sector being kept at the same width, the distance from 1 on the line L on 
the one leg. to 1 on the line L on the other, will give the length of one of 
the equal divisions of the given line to be divided. Thus, to divide a given 
line into seven equal parts : — take the length of the given line with the com- 
passes, and setting one point on 7, on the line L of one of the legs^ move 
the other leg out until the ot^ier point of the compasses touch 7 on the line 
L of that leg; this may be called the transverse distance of 7 on the line of 
lines. Now, keeping the sector at the same opening, the transverse distance 
of 1 will be the length of one of the 7 equal divisions of the given line; the 
transverse distance of 2 will be two of these divisions, &c. 

It will sometimes happen, that the line to be divided will be too long for 
the largest opening of the sector ; and in this case we take the half, or third, 
or fourth of the line, as the case may be 3 then the transverse distance of 1 to 
1, will be a half, a third, or a fourth of the required equal part. 

To divide a given line into any number of parts that shall have a certain 
relation or proportion to each other : Take the length of the whole line to be 
divided, and placing one point of the compasses at that division on the line 
of lines on one leg of the instrument which expresses the sum of all the 
parts into which the given line is to be divided, and open the sector till the 
other point of the compasses is on the corresponding division on the line of 
lines of the other leg. This is evidently making the sum of the parts into 
which the given line is to be divided a transverse distance ; and when this 
is done, the proportional parts will be found by taking, with the same open- 
ing of the sector, the transverse distances of the parts required. — To divide 
a given line into three parts, in the proportion of 2, 3, 4: The sum of these 
is 9 ; make the given line a transverse distance between 9 and 9 on the two 
lines of lines 3 then the transverse distances of the several numbers 2, 3, 4, 
will give the proportional parts required. 

To find a fourth proportional to three given lines : take the lateral distance 
of the second, and make it the transverse distance of the first, then will the 
transverse distance of the third be the lateral distance of the fourth; then, 
let there be given 6:3:: 8, — make the lateral distance of 3 the transverse 
distance of 6; then will the transverse distance of 8 be the lateral distance 
of 4, the fourth proportional required. 

This sector will be found highly serviceable in drawing plans. For in- 
stance, if it is wished to reduce the drawing of a steam engine from a scale 
ofl J inches to the foot, to another of five-eighths to the foot. Now, in 1 J 
inches there are 12 eighth parts ; so that the drawing will be reduced in the 
proportion of 12 to 5. Take the lateral distance of 0, and keep the com- 
passes at this opening; then open the sector till the points of the compasses 
mark the transverse distance of 12 3 keep now the sector at this opening, 



MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 105 

and any measure taken on the dFawing. to be copied and laid off on the 
sector as a lateral distance, — the transverse distance taken from that point 
will give the corresponding measure to be laid down in the new drawing. 

If the length of the side of a triangle, of which we have the drawing, ig 
to be reckoned 45 j what are the lengths of the other two sides ? Take the 
length of the side given, by the compasses, and open the sector till the meas- 
ure be the transverse distance of 45 to 45 5 then the lengths of the other 
sides being applied transversely, will give their numerical lengths. 

USE OF THE LINE OF CHORDS. 

By means of the sector, we may dispense with the protractor. Thus, to 
lay down an angle of any number of degrees : — take the radius of the circle 
on the compasses, and open the sector till this becomes the transverse dis- 
tance of 60 on the line of chords ; then take the transverse distance of the 
required number of degrees, keeping the sector at the same opening 3 and 
this transverse distance being marked off on an arc of the circle whose ra- 
dius was taken, will be the required number of degrees. 

We will not enter farther on the use of the sectorial lines, as what 
we have said will, we hope, be found sufficient for the purposes of the 
practical mechanic. 

MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 

A FLAT rectangular board is first to be provided, of any convenient size, 
as from 18 to 30 inches, and from 16 to 24 inches broad. It may be made 
of fir, plane tree, or mahogany 5 its face must be planed smooth and flat, 
and the sides and ends as nearly as possible at right angles to each other — 
the bottom of the board and the left side should be made perfectly so 5 and 
th'S corner should be marked, so that the stock of the square may be always 
applied to the bottom and left hand side of the board. To prevent the 
board from casting, it is usual to pannel it on the bark or on the sides. 

A T square must also be provided, which by means of a thumb-screw 
fixed in the stock, may be made to answer either the purposes of a com- 
mon square, or bevel,— the one-half of the stock being movable about the 
screw, and the other fixed at right angles on the blade. The blade ought 
to be somewhat flexible, and equal in length to the length of the board. 

Besides these, there will be required a case of mathematical instruments; 
in the selection of which it should be observed, that the bow compass is 
more frequently defective than any of the other instruments. After using 
any of the ink feet, they should be dried ; and if they do not draw properly-, 
thpy ought to be sharpened and brought to an equal length in the blade, by 
grinding on a hone. 

The colors most useful are, Indian ink, gamboge, Prussian blue, vermil- 
ion, and lake. With these, all colors necessary for drawing machinery or 
buildmgs may be made 3 so that, instead of purchasing a box of colors^ we 



I06 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 

would advise that those for whom this book is intended should procure 
these cakes separately ; the gamboge may be bought from an apothecary— 
a penn^'worth will serve a lifetime. In choosing* the rest, they should be 
rubbed against the teeih, and those which feel smoothest are of the best 
quality. 

Hair pencils will also be necessary, made of camePs hair, and of various 
sizes. They ought to taper gradually to a point when wet in the mouth, 
and should, after being pressed against the finger, spring back. 

Black-lead pencils will also be necessary. They ought not to be very 
soft, nor so hard that their traces cannot be easily erased by the Indian 
rubber. In choosing paper, that which will best suit this kind of drawing 
is thick, and has a hardish feel, not very smooth on the surface, yet free 
from knots. 

The paper on which the drawing is to be made, must be chosen of a 
good quality and convenient size. It is then to be wet with a sponge and 
clean water, on the opposite side from that on which the drawing is to be 
made. When the paper absorbs the water, which may be seen by the wet- 
ted side becoming dim, as its surface is viewed slantwise against the light, 
it is to be laid on the drawing board with the wetted side next the board. 
About half an inch must be turned up on a straight edge all round the 
paper, and then fastened on the board. This is done because the paper 
when wet is enlarged, and the edges being fixed on the board, act as stretch- 
ers when the paper contracts by drying. To prevent the paper from con- 
tricting before the paste has been sufficiently fastened by drying, the paper 
h usually wet on the upper surface, to within half an inch of the paste mark. 
When the paper is thoroughly dried, it will be found to lie firmly and equally 
on the board, and is then fit for use. 

If the drawing is to be made from a copy, we ought first to consider what 
scale it is to be drawn to. If it is to be equal in size to, or larger than the 
copy, a scale should be made accordingly, by which the dimensions of 
the several parts of the drawing are to be regulated. The diagonal scale, 
a simple and beautiful contrivance, will be here found of great use for the 
more minute divisions 3 and whenever the drawing is to be made to a scale 
of 1 inch, J inch, ^ inch to the foot, a scale should be drawn of 20 or 30 
equal parts; the last of which should be subdivided into 12, and a diagonal 
scale formed on the same principles as the common one, but with eight 
parallels and 12 diagonals, to express inches and eighths of an inch. For 
making such scales to any proportion, the line L on the sector will be found 
very convenient. 

Great care should be taken in the penciling, that an accurate outline be 
drawn, for on this much of the value of the picture will depend. The pen- 
cil marks should be distinct, yet not heavy, and the use of the rubber avoided 
as much as possible, as its frequent application ruffles the surface of the 
paper. The methodg already g^iven for constructing geometrical figures 




MECHANICAL DEAWTNG AND PERSPECTIVE. 10"* 

will be here found applicable, and the use of the T square, parallel ruler^ 
&c., will suggest themselves whenever they require to be employed. 

The drawing thus made of any machine or building is called a plan. 
Plans are of three kinds — a ground plan, or bird's-eye view, an elevation or 
front view, and a perspective plan. 

When a view is taken of the teeth of a wheel, with the circumference 
towards the eye, the teeth appear to be nearer as they are removed from 
the middle point of the circumference opposite the eye, and it may not be 
cMi of place here to give the method of representing them on paper : — If 
AB be the circumference of a wheel as viewed by 
the eye, and it is required to represent the teeth as /^ 
they appear on it, only half of the circumference can / 
be seen in this way at one time, consequently we can aI^^ 
only represent the half of the teeth. On AB describe 
a semicircle, which divide into half as many equal parts as the wheel has 
teeth; then from each of these points of division draw perpendiculars to the 
wheel AB, then will these perpendiculars mark the relativ^e places of the 
teeth. 

When the outline is completed in pencil, it is next to be carefully gone 
over with Indian ink, which is to be rubbed down with a little water, on a 
pUle of glass or eathernware — so as to be sufficiently fluid to flow easily 
out of the pen, and at the same time have a sufficient body of color. W^hile 
drawing the ink lines, the measurements should be repeated, so a^ to cor- 
rect any error that may have occurred during the penciling. The screw in 
the drawing pen will regulate the breadth of the strokes 5 which should not 
be alike heavy 5 those strokes being the heaviest which bound the dark part 
of the shades. Should any line be wrong drawn with the ink, it may U^ 
taken out by means of a sponge and water, which could not be done if 
common writing ink were employed. 

In preparing for coloring it is to be observed, that a hair pencil is to he 
fixed at each end of a small piece of wood, made in the form of a common 
pencil, one of which is to be used with color, and the other with water only. 
If the color is to be laid on, so as to represent a flat surface, it ought to be 
spread on equally, and there is here no use for the water brush j but if it is 
to represent a curved surface, then the color is to be laid on the part in- 
tended to be shaded, and softened towards the light by washing with the 
water brush. In all cases it should be borne in mind, that the color ought 
to be laid on very thin, otherwise it will be more difficult to manage, and 
will never make so fine a drawing. 

In colors even of the best quality, we sometimes meet with gritty particles, 
which it is desirable to avoid. Instead of rubbing the color on a plate with 
a little water, as is usual, it will be better to wet the color, and rub it on the 
point of the forefinger, letting the dissolved part drop off the finger on t« 
the plate. 



108 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 

In using the Indian ink, it will be found advantageous to mix it with a 
Jittle blue and a small quantity of lake, which renders it much more easily 
wrought with, and this is the more desirable as it is the most frequently used 
of all the other colors in Mechanical Drawing, the shades being all made 
with this color. 

The depth and extent of the shades will depend on various circumstan- 
ces — on the figure of the object to be shaded, the position of the eye of the 
observer, and the direction in which the light comes, «fec. The position of 
the eye will vary the proportionate size of any object in a picture when 
drawn in perspective. Thus, if a perspective view of a steam engine is 
given, the eye being supposed to be placed opposite the end nearest the 
nozzles, an inch of the nozzle rod will appear much larger than an inch of 
the pump rod which feeds the cistern 5 but if the eye is supposed to be placed 
opposite the other end of the engine, the reverse will be the case. But in 
drawing elevations and ground plans of machinery, every part of the ma- 
chine is drawn to the proper scale — an inch or foot in one part of the ma- 
chine, being just the same size as an inch or foot in any other part of the 
machine. So that by measuring the dimensions of any part of the drawing, 
and then applying the compass to the scale, we determine the real size of 
the part so measured. Whereas, if the view were given in perspective, we 
would be obliged to make allowance for the effect of distance, &c. 

The light is always supposed to fall on the picture at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, from which it fiillows, that the shade of any object, wh ch is 
intended to rise from the plane of the picture, or appear prominent, will just 
be equal in length to the prominence of the object. 

The shades, therefore, should be as exactly measured as any other part 
of the drawing, and care should be taken that they all fall in the proper di- 
pection, as the light is supposed to come from one point only. 

It is frequently of great w-e for the mechanic to take a hasty copy of a 
drawing, and many methods have been given for this purpose — by machines, 
tracing, &c. We give the following as easy, accurate, and convenient. 

Mix equal parts of turpentine and drying oil, and with a rag lay it on a 
sheet of good silk paper, allowing the paper to lie by for two or three days 
to dry, and wh'^n it is so it will be fit for use. To use it, lay ii on the draw- 
ing to be copied, and the prepared paper being nearly transparent, the lines 
of the drawing will be seen through it, and may be easily traced with a 
black-lead pencil. The lines on the oiled paper will be quite distinct when 
it is laid on while paper. Thus, if the mechanic has little time to spare, he 
may taKe a copy and lay it by to be recopied at his leisure. 

Care and perseverance are the chief requisites for attaining perfection in 
this species of drawing. Every mechanic should know something of it, so 
that he may the better understand how to execute plans that may be sub- 
mitted to him, or make intellig ble to others any invention he himself m?y 
make. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Geometry is the science "which investigates and demonstrates the 
properties of lines on surfaces and solids : hence, Practical Ge- 
ometry is the method of applying the rules of the science to practical 
purposes. 



110 DEFINITIONS OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 

DEFINITION OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS USED IN 
THE WORK. 

= When we <irish to state that one quantity or number, is equal to 
another quantity or number, the sign of equality = is employed. Thus 
3 added to 2 = 5, or 3 added to 2 is equal to 5. 

+ When the sum of twu quantities or numbers is to be taken, the sign 
'plus -f- is placed between them. Thus 3 + 2 = 5 j that is, the sum of 3 
and 2 is 5. This is the sign of Addition. 

— When the difference of two numbers or quantities is to be taken^ the 
iigii minus — is used, and shows that the latter number or quantity is to be 
taken from the former. Thus o — 2 = 3. This is the sign of Subtraction 

X When the product of any two numbers or quantities is to be taken, 
the sign into X is placed between them. Thus 3x2 = 6. Th's is the 
sign of Multiplication. 

-s- When we are to take the quotient of two quantities, the sign by -»- is 

C laced between them, and shows that the former is to be divided by the 
itter. Thus 6 H- 2 = 3. This is the sign of Division. But in some cases 
in this work, the mode of division has been, to place the dividend above a 
horizontal line^ and ihe divisor below it^ in the form of a vulgar fraction, 
thus; 

Dividend ^ . 6 _ 

^ . = Quotient. --= 3. 

— Divisor 2 

W"hen the square of any number or quantity is to be taken, this is de- 
noted by placing a small figure 2 above it to the right. Thus 6^ shows that 
the square of 6 is to be taken, and therefore Qr^ :=^ X 6 = 36. 

When we wish to show that the square root of any number or quantity is 
to be taken, this is denoted by placing the radical sign V before it. Thus 
v/36 shows that the square root of 36 ought to be taken, hence ^^36 = 6. 

The common marks of proportion are also used, viz., : : i : as 
3:6 : : 4 : D, being read 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8. 

The application of these signs to the expression of rules is exceedingly 
simple. Thus, connected with the circle we have the following rules : 

1st. The circumference of a circle will be found by multiplying the di- 
ameter by 3-1416. 

2d. The diameter of a circle may be found by dividing the circumfer- 
ence by 3-1416. 

3d. The area of a circle may be found by multiplying the half of the di- 
ameter, by the half of the circumference, or by multiplying together the 
diameter and circumference, and dividing the product by 4^ or by squaring 
the diameter and multiplying by 7354. 

Now all these rules may be thus expressed : 

1st. diameter X 314 16 = circumference. 

_, circumference 

^- " 31416 ~ = '^•"■"''''- 

diameter circumference 

3d. ^ X 2 = ^^®*- 

diameter X circumference 

w, ~ = area. 

4 

or, diamet/^r^ X '7854 = area. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Practical Geometry is an important branch of knowledge to all who 
are in any way engaged in the art of building. The workman, as well 
as the designer, requires its aid ; and unless he is acquainted with 
some of the leading principles of the science, he will frequently feel 
an uncertainty as to the results he may deduce from the problems 
which are presented to his nolice. 



Problem I. 
To inscribe an Equilateral Triangle within a given Circle, 
Let A B c be a circle ; it is required to draw within it a triangle 
Fig. 1. 




whose sides are equal to one another. Commencing from any point 
A, mark on the circumference of the circle a series of spaces equal 
to the radius of the circle, of which there will be six, and draw the 
arcs ADDS, &c. Then join every alternate point as a b, b c, c A, 
and the several lines will together form an equilateral triangle. 



112 



PRACTICAL GEOMETEY. 



Problem II. 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a Square^ 
Let A B c D be the given circle, it is required to draw a square 
Fig. 2. 




within it. Draw the diameters a b, c d, at right angles to each 
other; nr. m other words, draw the diameter a b, and form a per- 
pendicular bisecting it. Then j in the points a c, c b, b d, d a, and 
the figure a b c d is a square formed within a given circle. 



Problem III. 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a regular Pentagon ; that isy a 
Polygon of Jive Sides. 

Let A B c D be a circle in which it is required to draw a pentagoa. 

Fig. 3. 




Draw a diameter A d, and perpendicular to it another diameter. 
Then divide o b into two equal parts in the point e, and join c e ; and 
with E as a centre, and the radius c e, draw the arc c f, cutting a o 
in F : and, with c as a centre, and the same radius, describe the arc 
F G ; the arcs c F, G f intersect each other in the point f, and the 
arc G F intersects the circumference of the circle in the point G. 
Join the points c and g, and that line will he a side of the pentagon 
to be drawn. Mark off within the circumference the same space, 
and join the points a h, h i, i k, k c, and the figure that is formed 
is a pentagon. 



TKACTICAL GEOMETRY 



113 



Problem IV. 

Within a given Circle to describe a regular Hexagon ; that is to 
say, a Polygon of six equal Sides, 

Let A B c be the given circle, and o the centre With the radius 

Fig. 4. 




'V^ 



ftf the circle divide it inta parts, of which there will be six, and con- 
nect the points a d, d B, &c., and the figure A d b e c f will be a 
regular hexagon. 



Problem V 

To cut off the Corners of a given Square, so as to form a regular 
Octagon, 

Let A b c D be the given square. Draw the two diagonal lines 
Fig. 5. 




A c, and B D, crossing each other in o. Then, with the radius a o, 
that is, half the diagonal, and with A as a centre, describe the arc 
E F, cutting the sides of the square in e and f; then, from b as a 
centre, describe the arc g h; and in like manner from c and d de- 
scribe the arcs i k and l m. Draw the lines l g, f i, h m, and 
K e. and these, with the parts of the given square G F, i li, M ^« 
and E L, form the octagon required. 

10* 



114 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Problem VI. 

To divide a given Line into any JVumber of Parts, which Parti 
shall be in the same Proportion to each other as the Parts of some 
other given Line, whether thou Parts are equal or unequal. 

Let A B be the given line which it is required to divide in the same 
Fig. 6. 




K D 



manner and proportion as the line c d, whether the parts are equal 
or unequal. On the base line c d, form an equilateral triangle in the 
manner already described in a tbrnier problem. Then take the dis- 
tance A B, and with e as a centre, describe the arc f g, and join the 
points F and g, and f g shall be equal to a b. Now, if trum the 
points H I K, which are the divisions of the line c, we draw lines to 
E, as H E, I E, and k e, these lines will cut f g in the points a h c, 
which will divide the line fg into parts proportionate to the divisions 
of the line c d. 



Problem VII. 

On a given Line to draw a Polygon of any JVumber of Sides, so 
that that Line shall be me Side of a Polygon ; or, in other words, 
to find the Centre of a Circle which shall circumscribe any Poly- 
gouy the Length of the Side of the Polygon being given. 

We shall here show, in a tabular form, the length of the radius of 
a circle, which shall contain the given line, as a side of the required 
polygon; and here we will suppose the line to be divided into one 
thousand equal parts, and the radius into a cert^^in number of like 
parts. The radius of the circle for different figures will be as fol- 
lows : — 

For an inscribed Triangle 577 

Square . 701 

Pentao;on . .... 850 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon ... . . 1152 

Octagon 1306i 

Enneagon . .... li^'i 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 115 



Decagon 1618 

Endecagon 1775 

Dodecagon 1932 

By this table, the workman may, with a simple proportion, find the 
radius of a circle which shall contain a polygon, one side being given : 
thu<5, if it be required to dr«i w a pentagon, the side given being tilteen 
inches, we may say as 1000 is to 15, so is 850, the tabular number for 
a pentagon, to 12 inches and seventy-five hundredth parts of an inch, 
or seven-tenths and a half o 1 a tenth of an inch. 

We may here give another table for the construction of polygons, 
one in which the radius of the circumscribing circle is given. If ii 
be required to find the side of the inscribed polygon, the radius being 
one thousand parts, the sides of the different polygons will be accordi- 
ing to the following scale : — 

The Triangle 1732 

Square 1414 

Pentagon 1175 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 867.J 

Octagon 765 

Enneagon 684 

Decagon 618 

Endecagon 5634 

Dodecagon 517^ 

Here, as in the case already mentioned, the law of proportion ap- 
plies, and the statement may be thus made : as one thousand is to the 
number of inches contained in the radius of the given circle, so is the 
tabular number for the required polygon to the length of one of its 
sides in inches. Thus, let it be supposed that we have a circle whose 
radius in inches is 30, and that we wish to inscribe an octagon within 
it ; then say as 1000 is to 30 inches, so is 765 to 22 inches and 95-100 
parts of an inch, the length of the side of the required octagon. 

Method of Drawing Curved Lines. 

We will now introduce a few remarks upon the method of drawing 
cuived lines, and also give some rules for finding the forms of mould 
ings when they are to mitre together, that is to say, of raking 
mouldings, and of bevel work in general. It will also be necessary 
to make a few remarks upon the form of ribs for domes and groins, a 
knowledge of which is so necessary to the builder, that without it the 
workman cannot correctly execute his task. It is hardly necessary 
to state, that all these mechanical operations are founded upon geo- 
metrical principles; and, unless he is acquainted with these, th« 
workman cannot hope to succeed in his attempt to excel in his art, — 
one which is necessary for the comfort and convenience of all coni- 
wunitiea. 



115 



PRACTICAL GOEMETRY. 



l-ilOELEM VIII. 

To draw on Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses, the transverse and 
conjugate Diameters being given ; that is y the Length and Width. 

Let A B be the transverse or longest diameter ; c d the conjugate 

Fig. 7 




or shortest diameter ; and o tne point of their intersection, that is, 
the centre ot the 'ellipse, lake the distance o c or o d ; and, taking 
A as one point, mark that distance a e upon the line a o. Divide 

E into three equal parts, ami lake from a f, a distance e f, equal 
to one of those parts. Make o g equal to o f. With the radius f o, 
and F and g as centres, strike arcs which shall intersect each other 
in the points i and h. Thee uravv the lines h f k, h g m, and i f i-., 

1 G N. With f as a cen;re, an! the radius a f, describe the arc 
L A k; and, from g as a centre, with the same radius, desciibe the 
arc M B jv. With the radius h c, and h as a centre, desci ibe the arc 
K c M ; and, from the point i, with the radius i d, desciibe the arc 
L D M. The figure a c b n is an ellipse, formed of four arcs of cir- 
cles. 

Problem IX. 

To draw an Ellipse by means of two Concentric Circlet. 
Fig. 8. 



/ 


6 

i 

^ 


K\ 


4 
^ 


^ 


A, 


8 


2 
L 


5 


M 



]) 



fllACTlCAL GEOMETRY. 117 

Let A B be the transverse, and e f the conjugate diameter, and o 
the centre of an ellipse to be drawn. From o with the radius o a, 
describe the circle a c b d, and from the same centre describe another 
circle 6 eh f. Divide the outer circle into any number of equal 
parts ; the greater the number, the more exact will be the ellipse : 
and they should not be less than twelve. From each of these divi- 
sions draw lines to the centre o, as a o, 6 o, c o. Then, from a, 6, c, 
&c., draw lines perpendicular to a b, and from the corresponding 
points in the inner circle, that is, from the points marked 1, 2, 3, &c., 
draw lines parallel to a b. Draw a curve through the points where 
these lines intersect each other, and it will be an ellipse. 

In the diaajram to which this demonstration refers, only one quar- 
ter of the ellipse is lettered, but the process described in relation to 
that must be carried round the circles, as is shown in the dotted and 
other lines. 



Problem X. 

To describe an Ellipse by Means of a Carpenter* s Square , or a 
piece of notched Lath. 

Having drawn two lines to represent the diameters of the ellipse 
required, fasten the square so that the internal an^le or meeting a( 
the blade and stock shall be at the centre of the ellipse. Then take 
a piece of wood or a lath, and cut it to the length of half the longest 
diameter, and from one end cut out a piece equal to half the shortest 
diameter, and there will then be a piece remaining at one end equal 
to the difference of the half of the two diameters. Place this project- 
ing piece of the lath in such a manner that it may rest against the 
square, on the edge which corresponds to the two diameters ; then, 
turning it round horizontally, the two ends of the projection will 
slide along the two internal edges of the square, and if a pencil be 
fixed at the other end of the lath, it will describe one quarter of an 
ellipse. The square must then be moved for the successive quarters 
of the ellipse, and the whole figure will thus be easily formed. 

This method of forming an ellipse is a good substitute for the usual 
plan, and the tigure thus pioduced is more accurate than that made 
by passing a pencil round a string moving upon two pins or nails 
fixed in the foci, for the string is apt to stretch, and the pencil cannot 
bfl guided with the accuracy required. 

There are many other methods of drawing ellipses, or more prop- 
erly ovals, but we can only notice two of those in common use, 

1. By ordinates, or lines drawn perpendicular to the axis. Having 
formed the two diameters, divide the axis, or larger diameter, into 
any number of equal parts, and erect lines perpendicular to the 
several points. Next draw a semicircle, and divide its diameter into 
the like number of equal parts; that is, if the larger diameter or axis 
of the intended ellipse be divided into twenty equal parts, then the 



116 



Practical GfeoMfetar. 



eemicircle must be divided into the like number. As the diameter of 
the semicircle is equal to the shorter diameter of the ellipse, or con- 
jupjate axis, perpendiculars may be raised from these divisions of the 
diameter, or the semicircle, till they meet the circumference ; and 
the different perpendiculars, which are called ordinates, may be 
erected like perpendiculars, on the axis of ellipse. Joining the sev- 
eral points together, the ellipse is described ; and the more accurately 
the perpendiculars are formed the more exact will be the ellipse. 

2. By intersecting arches. Take any point in the axis, and with a 
radius equal to the distance of that point from one extremity of the 
axis, and with one of the foci as a centre, describe an arc ; then with 
the distance of the assumed point in the axis from the other end of it, 
and with the other focus as a centre, describe another arc intersect- 
ing the former, and the point of intersection will be a point in the 
ellipse. By assuming any number of points in the axis, any number 
of points on the curve may be found, and these united will give the 
ellipse. This process is founded on the property of the ellipse ; that 
if any two lines are drawn from the foci to any point in the curve, the 
length of these lines added together will be a constant quantity, that 
is, always the same in the same ellipse. 



Problem XI. 
To find the Centre and the two Axes of an Ellipse. 
Let A B c D be an ellipse, it is required to find its centre. Drtw 
Fio. 9. 




any two lines, as e f and g h, parallel and equal to each other. Bi- 
sect these lines as in the points i and k, and bisect i k as in l. 
From L, as a centre, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in four points, 
1, 2, 3, 4. Now L. is the centre of the ellipse. But join the points 
1, 3, and 2, 4; and bisect these lines as in m and n. Draw the line 
M N, and produce it to a and b, and it will be the transverse axis. 
Draw c d through l, and perpendicular to ab, and it will be the 
conjugate or shorter axis. 



tftACTlCAL GfiOBIfiTftt. 



119 



Problem XII. 

fh draw aflat Arch by the intersection of Lines^ having tht Opeiu 
ing and Spring or Rise given* 

Let A D B be the opening, and c d its spring or rise. In the mid- 
FiG. 10. 




die of A B, at D, erect a perpendicular d e, equal to twice c d, its 
rise ; and from u draw e a and e b, and divide a e and b e into any 
number or equal parts, as a, h, c, and 1, 2, 3. Join Ba, 3 c, 2^, and 
1 A, and it will Form the arch required. 

The more parts a e and b e are divided into, the greater will be 
the accuracy of the curve. 

Many curves may be made in the same manner, according to the 
position of the lines a e and e b ; and if instead of two lines drawn 
from A and b, meeting in e, a perpendicular be erected at the same 
Doints, and two lines be then drawn from the ends of these perpendic- 
ulars meeting in an angle, and these lines be divided into any num- 
oer of equal parts, the points of the adjacent lines may be joined, and 
t curve will be formed resembling a g;othic arch. The demonstration 
already given is therefore very useful to the workman, as he may 
vary the form of the curve by altering the position of the lines, either 
with respect to the angles which they make with each other, or their 
proportional lengths. 

Problem XIII. 

To find the Form or Curvature of a raking Moulding that fhall 
unite correctly with a level one. 

Let A B c D be part of the level moulding, which we will here 

Fig. 1L 




ttippose to be an ovolo, or quarter round ; a and c, the points where 
the raking moulding takes its rise on the angle ; f c g, the angle the 



120 



TEACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



raking mouldino makes with the horizontal one. Draw c F at the 
given angle, and from a. draw A e parallel to it ; contiuiie b a to h, 
and from c make c h perpendicular to a h. Divide c H into huv 
number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, and draw lines parallel to h a, a^ 1 
a, 2 &, 3 c ; and then in any part of the raking moulding, as i, draw 
IK perpendicular to ea, and divide i k into the same number of 
equal parts h c is divided into ; and draw 1 a, 2 6, 3 c, parallel to e a. 
Then transfer the distances la, 2 6, 3 c, and a curve drawn through 
these points will be the form of the curve required for the raking 
moulding 

We have here shown the method to be employed for an ovolo ; but 
it is just the same for any other formed moulding, as a caveito, semi- 
recta, &c. It may be worthy remark, that, after the moulding is 
worked, and the mitre is cut in the mitre-box for the level moulding, 
the raking moulding must be cut, either by the means of a wedge 
formed to the required angle of the rake, or a box made to correspond 
to that angle: and if this be accurately done, the mitre will be true, 
and the moulding in all its members correspond to the level moulding. 
The plane in which the raking moulding is situated is square to that 
of ihe Uvel one. This is always the case in a pediment, the mould- 
ings of which correspond with the return. 

Problem XIV. 

To find the Form or Curvature of the Return in an open or broken 

Pediment, 

Let A B c be the angle which the pediment makes with the cor- 
FiQ. 12. 




nice, and let the form and size of the moulding be as m the last pro- 
blem, and as shown at d a b h. From d drop a perpendicular on 
c b, and draw d e perpendicular to d c, or parallel to c b ; and let 
D E be equal to e i (Fig. 11). Then from e diaw e f, parallel to 
D A, and divide e f ints the same number of parts as i k (Fig 11), 
at 1 a, 26, 3 c, and transfer the distances 1 a, 2 6, 3 c, as in Fig. 11. 
Then a curve line drawn through the points a, 6, c, will be the form 
of the return for the moulding of the open pediment. 

The mitre for the return is cut in the usual manner, but that of 
the pediment is cut to the proper angle of its inclination, as in the 
last problem. In fixing the mitre, the portion e d g of the return 
must be cut away, to make it come flush with the top of the pediment 
moulding. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION 



AND 



INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. 



II 



122 EPITOME OP MENSURATION, 

EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, &C. 

1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure bounded 
by an equal perimeter or outline, 

2. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameters. 

3. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3.1416. 

4. The diameter of a circle is equal to .31831 of its circumference. 

5. The square of the diamefer of a circle being i, its area equals .7854. 

6 The square root of the area of a circle, multiplied by 1.12837, equals 
its diameter. 

7. The diameter of a circle multiplied by .8862, or the circumference 
multiplied by 2821, equals the side of a square of equal area. 

8. The sum of the squares of half the chord and versed sme divided by 
the versed sine, the quotient equals the diameter of corresponding circle. 

9. The chord of the whole arc of a circle taken from eigtjt times the chord 
of half the arc, one-third of the remainder equals the length of the arc , or, 

10. The nurriber of degrees contained in the arc of a circle, multiplied by 
the diameter of the circle and by .008727; the product equals the length of 
the arc in equal terms of unity. 

11. The leng-th of the arc of a sectop of a circle multiplied by its radius^ 
equals twice the area of the sector. 

12. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area of the sector, 
minus the area of a triang^le whose vertex is the centre, and whose base 
equals the chord of the segment, or, 

13. The area of a segment may be obtained by dividing the height of the 
segment by the diameter of the circle, and multiplying the corresponding 
tabular area by the square of the diameter. 

14. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied by 
their difference and by .7854, equals the area of the ring or space contained 
between them. 

15. The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of a cylindric ring, 
multiplied by the square of its thickness and by 2 4674, equals its solidity. 

16. The circumference of a cylinder, multiplied by its length or height, 
equals its convex surface. 

17. The area of the end of a cylinder, multiplied by its length, equals its 
solid conten's. 

18. The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its 
depth, equals its cubical capacity. 

19. The square of the diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its length and 
divided by any other required length, the square root of the quotient equals 
the diameter of the other cylinder of equal contents or capacity. 



fit^ttCMfi OF MENStJRATlON. \2^ 

to. The square of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by 3.1416, equals 
its convex surface. 

21. The cuhe of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by .5236, equals its 
solid contents. 

22. The height of any spherical segment or zone multiplied by the diam- 
eter of the sphere of which it is a part, and by 3.1416, equals the area or 
convex surface of the segment; or, 

23. The height of the segment, multiplied by the circumference of the 
spiiere of which it is a part, equals the area. 

24. The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to three times the 
square of the radius of us base, plus the square of its height, and multiplied 
by Its height and by 5236. 

25. The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the squares of the 
radii of Its two ends, and one-third the square of its height, multiplied by 
the height, and by 1.5708. 

26. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 foot in diameter and 1 foot in length, 
equals 5 875 of a United States gallon. 

27. The capacity of a cylinder 1 inch in diameter and 1 foot in length, 
equals 0408 of a United States gallon. 

28. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch in length, 
equals .0034 of a United States gallon. 

29. The capacity of a sphere 1 foot in diameter equals 3.9156 United 
States gillons. 

39. Ttie capacity of a sphere 1 inch in diameter equals .002165 of a 
U!\iied States gallon : — hence, 

31. The capacity of any other cylinder in Uniterl States gallons is ob- 
tained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length, or the capaci- 
ty of any other sphere by the cube of its diameter, and by the number of 
United States gallons contained as above in the unity of its measurement. 

OF THE SQUARE, RECTANGLE, CUBE, &C. 

1. The side of a square equals the square root of its area. 

2. The area of a square equals the squire of one of us sides. 

3. The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the square of 
its side. 

4. The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the square of 
its diagonal. 

5. The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given square contains 
double the area of the given square. 

6. The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its breadth. 

7. The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the breadth j or, 
the breadth equals the area divided by the length. 

8. The side or end of a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of the 
diagonal and opposite side to that required, multiplied by their diiference. 



124 



EPttOME OF MENSURATi6>f. 



9. The diagonal in a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of the 
squares of the base and perpendicular. 

10. The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides multiplied 
by the length or breadth of one of its sides. 

11. The length or breadth of a side of a cube equals the cube root of its 
solidity. 

12. The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 7.4784 United States gallons, 



SURFACES AND SOLIDITIES OF THE REGULAR BODIES, EACH OF WHOSE 
BOUNDARY LINES IS 1. 



No. of sides. 


Names. 


Surfaces. 


Solids. 


4 
6 

8 
12 

20 


Tetrahedron 

Hexahedron 

Octahedron 

Dodecahedron 

Icosahedron 


1.7321 
6. 

3.4641 

20.6458 

8.6603 


0.1179 

1. 

4714 

7.6631 

2.1&17 



The tabular surface multiplied by the square of one of the boundary lines 
equals the surface required ; or, 

The tabular solidity multiplied by the cube of one of the boundary lines 
equals the solidity required. 

OF TRIANGLES, POLYGONS, &C. 

1. The complement of an angle is its defect from a right angle. 

2. The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right angles. 

3. The sine, tangent, and secant of an angle, are the cosine, cotangent, 
and cosecant of the complement of that angle. 

4. 'i'he hypotenuse of a right-angled tr.angle being made radii, its sides 
become the sines of the opposite angles, or the cosines of the adjacent angles. 

5. The three angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles : 
hence the oblique angles of a right-angled triangle are each others comple- 
ments. 

6. The sum of the squares of the two given sides oi a right-angled trian- 
gle is equal to the square of the hypotenuse. 

7. The difference between the squares of the hypotenuse and given side 
of a right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the required side. 

8. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base multiplied 
by the perpendicular height ; or, 

9. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the two sides and the 
natural sine of the contained angle. 

10. The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its apothem or perpen- 
dicular^ and by the number of its side3, equals twice the area. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



125 



TABLE OF THE VREAS OF REGULAR POLYGONS EACH OF WHOSE 
SIDES IS UKITY. 



Name of 
Polygon. 



No of Apolhem or : Area when i Interior 
Sides Perpend'lar Side IS Lniiyj Angle. 



Triangle 

Sijiiare 

Pentagon 

Hexagon 

Heptagon 

Octagon 

Nonagon 

Decagon 

Undecagon 

Dodecagon 



o 

4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 



Central 
Angle. 



0.2887 

0.5 

0.6882 

0.8660 

1.0386 

1.2071 

1.3737 

1.5388 

1.7028 

1.8660 



0.4330 

1 

1 7205 
2.5981 
36339 
4.8284 
6.1818 
7.6942 
9.3656 
11.1962 



60° 





120° 


0' 


90 





90 





108 





72 





120 





60 





128 


34f 


51 


25^ 


135 





45 





140 





40 





144 





36 





147 


16/t 


32 


43 r\ 


150 





30 






The tabular area of the corresponding polygon m-ultipiied by the square 
of the Side of the given polygon equals the area of the given polygon. 

OF ELLIPSES, CONES, FRUSTUMS, &C. 

1. The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two diameters of 
an ellipse multiplied by 3.1416 equals its circumference. 

2. The product of tlie two axes of an ellipse multiplied by .7854 equals 
its area. 

3. The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of the circum- 
ference of its base multiplied by its slant side, to which, if the area of the 
base be added, the sum is the whole surface, 

4. The solidity of a cone equals one th.rd of the product of its base mul- 
tiplied by its altitude or height. 

5. The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustum of a cone 
added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum multip'ied by its 
height and by .2618, equals its solidity. 



INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC, 

OR UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 

The slide rule is an instrument by which the greater portion of operations 
in arithmetic and mensuration may be advantageously performed, provided 
the lines of division and gauge points be made properly correct, and their 
several values familiarly understood. 

The lines of division are disiinguished by the letters a B c D ; A B and c 
being each divided alike, and containing what is termed ^ double' radlUS, 

u* 



126 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 

or double series of logarithmic numbers, each series being supposed to b« 
divided into 1000 equal parts, and distributed along the radius in the fol- 
lowing manner : 

From 1 to 2 contains 301 of those parts, being the log. ofS. 

3 *' 477 '' 3. 

" 4 '' 602 '•' 4. 

'^ 5 '' 699 •' 5. 

" 6 " 778 " 6. 

'' 7 " 845 ** 7. 

" 8 " 003 " 8. 

" 9 *' 954 " 9. 
lOOO being the whole number. 

The line d on the improved rules consists of only a single radius ; and 
although of larger radius, the logarithmic series is the same, and disposed 
of along the line in a similar proportion, forming exactly a line of square 
roots to the numbers on the lines b c. 

NUMERATION. 

Numeration teaches us to estimate or properly value the numbers and 
divisions on the rule in an arithmetical form. 

Their values are all entirely governed by the value set upon the first 
figure, and being decimally reckoned, advance tenfold from the commence- 
ment to the termination of each radius : thus, suppose 1 at the joint be one, 
the 1 in the middle of the rule is ten, and 1 at the end, one hundred . again, 
suppose 1 at the joint ten, 1 in the middle is 100, and 1 or 10 at the end is 
lOOO, &c., the intermediate divisions on which complete the whole systenr 
ot its notation. 

TO MULTIPLY NUMBERS BY THE RULE. 

Set 1 on B opposite to the multiplier on a 3 and against the numbe; tvj d« 
multiplied on b is the product on a. 

Multiply 6 by 4. 

Set 1 on b to 4 on a ; and against 6 on B is 24 on A. 

The slide thus set, against 7 on b is 28 on a. 



&c. 



TO DIVIDE NUMBERS UPON THE RULE. 

Set the divisor on b to 1 on a j and against the number to be divided o« 
B is the quotient on a. 
Divide 63 by 3. 

Set 3 on B to 1 on A ; and against 63 on B is 21 on A, 



8 


(' 


32 


9 


u 


36 


10 


<' 


40 


12 


(I 


48 


15 


{( 


60 


25 


u 


100 



UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 127 

PROPORTION, OR RULE OF THREE DIRECT 
Rule. — Set the first term on b to the second oii a j and against the third 
upon B is the fourth upon a. 

1. If 4 yards of cloth cost 38 cents, what will 30 yards cost at the same 
rate ? 

Set 4 on B to 38 on A 5 and against 30 on B is 285 cents on A. 

2. Suppose I pay 31 dollars 50 cents for 3 cwt, of copper, at what rate is 
that per ton ? I ton z= 20 cwt. 

Set 3 upon b to 31.5 upon a j and against 20 upon B is 210 upon A. 

RULE OF THREE INVERSE. 

Rule. — Invert the slide, and the operation is the same as direct propor- 
tion. 

1. I know that six men are capable of performing a certain given por- 
tion of work in eight days, but I want the same performed in three j how 
many men must there be employed ? 

Set 6 upon c to 8 upon a ; and against 3 upon c is 16 upon A. 

2. The lever of a safety-valve is 20 inches in length, and 5 inches between 
the fixed end and centre of the valve 5 what weight must there be placed on 
the end of the lever to equipoise a force or pressure of 40 lbs. tending to 
raise the valve ? 

Set 5 upon c to 40 upon a ; and against 20 upon c is 10 upon A. 

3. If 8| yards of cloth, Ij yard in width, be a sufficient quantit}', how 
much will be required of thai which is only 7-8ths in width, to effect the 
same purpose ? 

Set 1.5 upon c to 8.75 upon A 5 and against .875 upon c is 15 yards upon A. 

SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS OF NUMBERS. 

On the engineer's rule, when the lines c and d are equal at both ends, c 
is a table of squares, and D a table of roots, as 

Squares 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 on c. 
Roots 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 on d. 

To find the geometrical mean proportion between two numbers. 
Set one of the numbers upon c to the same number upon D 3 and against 
the other number upon c is the mean number or side of an equal square 
upon D. 

Required the mean proportion between 20 and 45. 

Set 20 upon c to 20 upon d 3 and against 45 upon c is 30 upon D. 
To cube any number, set the number upon c to 1 or 10 upon D 3 ancf 
p;^iin'^t the same number upjn d is the cube number upon C, 



128 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 

Required the cube of 4. 
Set 4 upon c to 1 or 10 upon D j and against 4 upon D is 64 upon c. 

To extract the cube root of any number, invert the slide, and set the 
number upon b to 1 or 10 upon D j and where two numbers of equal value 
coincide on the lines b d, is the root of the given number. 

Required the cube root of 64. 
Set 64 upon B to 1 or 10 upon d ; and against 4 upon B is 4 upon D, or root 
of the given number. 

On the common rule^.when 1 in the middle of the line c is set opposite tc 
10 on D, then c is a table of squares, and D a table of roots. 

To cube any number by this rule, set the number upon c to 10 upon D 
and against the same number upon D is the cube upon c, 

MENSURATION OF SURFACE. 

1. Squares^ Rectangles, SfC. 

Rule. — When the length is given in feet and the breadth in inches, set 
the breadih on R to 12 on a 5 and against the length on a is the content in 
square feet on B. 

If the dimensions are all i-nches, set the breadth on B to 144 upon A 5 and 
against the length upon a is the number of square feet on b. 

Required the content of a board 15 inches broad and 14 feet long. 
Set 15 upon b to 12 upon a j and against 14 upon A is 17.5 square feet on B. 

2. Circles, Polygons, ^c. 
Rule — Set .7854 upon c to 1 or 10 upon d j then will the lines c and p 
be a table of areas and diameters. 

Areas 3.14 7.06 12.56 19.63 28.2? 38.48 50.26 63.61 upon c. 
Diam. 23456789 upon d. 
In the common rule, set .7854 on c to 10 on D 5 then c is a line or table 
of areas, and D of diameters, as before. 

Set 7 upon B to 22 upon a ; then b and a form or become a table of di- 
ameters and circumferences of circles. 

Cir. 3.14 6 28 9.42 12.56 15.7 18.85 22 25.13 28.27 upon a. 
Dia. 123 4 56 78 9 upon b. 
Polygons from S to 12 sides. — Set the gauge-point upon c to 1 or 10 
upon D 3 and against the length of one side upon D is the area upon c. 
Sides 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Gauge-points .433 1.7 2.6 3.63 4.82 6.18 7.69 9.37 11.17 
Required the area of an equilateral triangle, each side 12 inches in length. 
Set .433 upon c to 1 upon d 5 and against 12 upon d s»re 62,5 s(|uare 
inches upon c. 



UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 



129 



TABLE OF GAUGE-POINTS FOR THE ENGINEER'S RULE. 



Names 


F, F, F. 


F,I,I. 


I, I, T. 1 


F, I. 


i> I 1 


1 F. 


I. 


Cubic inches 


578 


83 


1728 


106 


1273 


105 


121 


Cubic feet 


1 


144 


I 


1833 


22 


121 


33 


Imp. Gallons 


163 


231 


277 


294 


353 


306 


529 


Water in lbs. 


16 


23 


276 j 


293 


352 


305 


528 


Gold 


814 


1175 


141 i 


149 


178 


155 


269 


Silver »* 


15 


216 


261 i 


276 


334 


286 


5 


Mercury " 


118 


169 


203 1 


216 


258 


225 


389 


Brass *« 


193 


177 


333 


354 


424 


369 


637 


Copper " 


18 


26 


319 


831 


397 


345 


596 


Lead " 


141 


203 


243 


253 


31 


27 


465 


W rot iron " 


207 


297 


357 


338 


453 


394 


682 


Cast iron '* 


222 


32 


384 ; 


407 


489 


424 


733 


Tin " 


219 


315 


378 ' 


401 


481 


419 


728 


Steel 


202 


292 


352 


372 


448 


385 


671 


Coal 


127 


183 


22 


33 


28 


242 


42 


Marble '* 


591 


85 


102 


116 


13 


113 


195 


Freestone *' 


632 


915 


11 


1162 


14 


141 


21 



FOR THE COMMON SLIDE RULE. 



Names 


F, F, F. 


F, T,I. 


I. r. I. 


F,r. 


1, I. 


F. 


I 


Cubic inches 


36 


518 


624 


j 660 


799 


625 


113 


Cubic fi^et 


625 


9 


108 


114 


138 


119 


206 


Water in lbs. 


10 


144 


174 


184 


22 


191 


329 


Gold 


507 


735 


88 


96 


118 


939 


180 


Silver 


938 


136 


157 


173 


208 


173 


354 


Mercury ** 


738 


122 


127 


i 132 


162 


141 


242 


Brass '' 


12 


174 


207 


j 221 


265 


23 


397 


Copper " 


112 


163 


196 


207 


247 


214 


371 


Lead *« 


880 


126 


152 


162 


194 


169 


289 


Wrotiron " 


129 


186 


222 


235 


283 


247 


423 


Cast iron '* 


139 


2 


241 


254 


3>4 


265 


458 


Tin 


137 


135 


235 


25 


300 


261 


454 


Steel «' 


136 


183 


22 


233 


278 


i 239 


418 


Coal 


795 


114 


138 


146 


176 


1 151 


262 


Marble *« 


370 


53 


637 


725 


81 


72 


121 


Freestone *' 


394 


57 


69 


728 


873 


755 


132 



MENSURATION OF SOLIDITY AND CAPACITY. 

General Rule. — Set the length upon b to the gauge point upon A ; and 
against the side of the square, or diameter on D, are the cubic contents, or 
weight in lbs. on c. 

1. Required the cubic contents of a tree 30 feet in length, and 10 niches 
quarter girt. 

Set 30 upon B to 144 (the gauge-point) upon A j and against 10 upon D ii 
20.75 feet upon c. 



130 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 

2. In a cylinder 9 inches in leng-th. and 7 inches diameter^ iiow many cuMc 
inches ? 

Set 9 upon B to 1273 (the gang-e- point) upon a j and against 7 on D is 346 
inches on c. 

3. What is the weight of a bar of cast iron 3 in. square, and 6 ft. long? 
Set 6 upon b to 32 (the gauge-point/ upon a ; and against 3 upon D is 168 

pounds upon c. 
By the common rule. 

4. Required the weight of a cylinder of wrought iron 10 inches long, and 
bh diameter. 

Set 10 upon B to 283 (the gau^-e-point) upon a; and against 5\ upon D is 
^Q.Qo pounds on c. 

5. What is the weight of a dry rope 25 yards long, and 4 inches circum- 
ference ? 

Set 25 upon b to 47 (the gauge-point) upon a j and against 4 on i) is 53 16 
pounds on c. 

6. What is the weight of a short-linked chain 30 yards in length, and 
6-16lhs of an inch in diameter? 

Set 30 upon b to 52 (the gauge-point) upon a j and against 6 on D is 129.5 
pounds on c. 

POWER OF STEAM ENGINES. 

Condensing Engines. — Rule. Set 3.5 on c to 10 on D ; then D is a line 
-•^f diameters for cylinders, and c the corresponding number of horses' 
rower J thus, 

H. Pr. 3i 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 23 25 30 40 50 on c. 

C. D. 10 in. 10| 12 13^ 154 17 18| 214 24 26| 294 33| 37| on d. 

The same is effected on the common rule by setting o on c to 12 on d. 

Nan- condensing Engines. — Rule, Set the pressure of steam in pounds 
per square inch on b to 4 upon a j and against the cylinder's diameter on D 
is the number of horses' power upon c. 

Required the power of an engine, when the cylinder is 20 inches diameter 
and steam 30 pounds per square inch. 

Set 30 on B to 4 on a 5 and against 20 on D is 30 horses' power on c. 

The same is effected on the common rule by setting the force of the steam 
on B to 250 on a. 

OF ENGINE BOILERS. 

How many superficial feet are contained in a boiler 23 feet in length and 
64 feet in width ? 
Set 1 on B to 23 on a ; and against 5.0 upon B is 126.5 square feet upon a. 

If 5 square feet of boiler surface be sufficient for each horse-power, how 
many horses' power of engine is the boiler equal to ? 

Set 5 upon B to 126.5 upon A 3 and against 1 upon B is 25-5 upon A. 



RULES AND TABLES 



FOB 



ARTIFICERS AND ENGINEERS. 



32 MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS* WOR^ 



ARTIFICERS' RULES AND TABLES 

For Computing the Work of Bricklayers, Well Dig- 
gers, Masons, Carpenters and Joiners, Slaters, Plai- 
TERERs, Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, and Plumbers 

MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS' WORK. 

Brickwork is estimated at the rale of a number of bricks in thickness, estimat- 
ing a brick at 4 inches thick. The dimensions of a building are usually taken 
by measuring half round on the outside, and half round on the inside ; the sum 
of these two gives the compass of the wall, — lo be multiplied by the height, for 
the content of the materials. Chimneys are by some measured as if they were 
solid, deducting only the vacuity from the hearth to the mantel, on account of the 
trouble of them. And by others they are girt or measured round for their breadth, 
and the height of the story is their height, taking the depth of the jaml)s for their 
thickness. And in this case, no deduction is made for the vacuity from the floor 
to the mantel-tree, because of the gathering of the breast and wirg<», to make room 
for the hearth in the next story. To measure the chimney shaf.! which appear 
above the building, gird them about with a line for the breadth, io multiply by 
their heignt.'' Ajid account their thickness half a brick more than it really is, ir. 
consideration C the plastering and scaffoldino^. All windows, Ucors, &c., are to 
be deducted out of the contents of the walls in which they are placed. But this 
deduction is made only wiih regard to materials ; for the whole measure is taken 
for workmanship, and that all outside measure t<»o, namely, measuring quite 
round the outside of the building, being in consideration of the trouble of the 
returns or angles. There are also some other allowances, such as double meas- 
ure for feathered gable ends, &c. 

Example. — The end wall of a house is 28 feet long, and 37 feel high to the 
eaves: 15 feet high is four bricks or 16 inches thick, other 12 feel is three bricka 
or 12 inches, thick, and the remaining lo feet is two bricks or 8 inches thick; 
above which is a triangular gable 12 feet high and one brick or 4 inches in 
Uickness What number of bricks are there in the said wail? Ans, 25,620. 

thickness. 

28 X 15 = 420 X 4 = 16S0 contents of 1st story. 
28 X 12 = 336 X 3 = 1003 " " 2d "■ 
28 X 10 = 2S0 X 2 = 560 " " 3d '* 
^t-s 6X28 = 168X1= 168 " " gable. 



3416 square feet area of whole W4ji. 

7^ bricks to square fool. 



23,912 By the table 

1,708 3000suprfi. ft. =22,500 bricks 

400 '' *' = 3,000 *' 

Answer,— 25,620 bricks. 10 " " = 75 " 

6 " " = 45 " 



A Table by ivhich to ascertain the- nvmber of Bricks necessary to construct a»§ 
Piece of Building^ froTTi a four-inch Wall to twinty -four inches in Thickness. 



3416 " " =25,620 bricks 

Bricks necessary to construct au§ 
^nty-four inches in Thickness. 

The utility of the Table (on next page) can be seen by the followino^ Ex- 
ample. Required the number of bricks to build a wall of 12 inches IhicKneat, 
and containing an area of 6,437 square feet 
t5quare feet 1000 22,500 bricks— See table 

X 6 6 

Note. — 1\ bricks, 
equal one superficial iooC 



6000 = 


135 000 


400 = 


9,000 


30 = 


675 


7 = 


153 



«,437= 144,833 bricks 



MEASUREMENT OF BRICKWORK, WELLS U CISTERNS. 133 



S-jjjerficia! 




Nunibet of ffricks to Thirkneas of 




feet of 
Wall. 














4. inch 


8 inch. 


12-inch. 


16-inch. 


20-iuch. 


1 24iiich. 


1 


8 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


3 


15 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


3 


23 


45 


68 


90 


113 


13n 


4 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


5 


38 


75 


113 


150 


188 


225 


6 


45 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


7 


53 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


8 


60 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


9 


68 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


10 


75 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


20 


150 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


30 


2-25 


450 


675 


900 


1125 


1350 


40 


300 


600 


900 


1200 


1500 


1800 


50 


375 


75C 


1125 


1500 


1875 


2250 


60 


450 


900 


1350 


180') 


2250 


2700 


70 


5-25 


1050 


1575 


2100 


2625 


3150 


80 


600 


1200 


1800 


2400 


3000 


3600 


90 


675 


1350 


2025 


2700 


3375 


4050 


100 


750 


1500 


2250 


3000 


3750 


4500 


200 


1500 


3('00 


4500 


6000 


7500 


9000 


300 


2-250 


4500 


6750 


9000 


11250 


13500 


400 


3000 


6000 


9000 


12000 


15000 


18000 


500 


3750 


7500 


11250 


15000 


18750 


22500 


600 


4500 


9000 


13500 


IbOOO 


22500 


27000 


700 


5-250 


10500 


15750 


21000 


26250 


31500 


800 


6000 


12000 


18000 


24000 


30000 


36000 


900 


6750 


13500 


20250 


27000 


33750 


40500 


1000 


7500 


15000 


22500 


30000 


37500 


45000 



MEASUREMENT OF WELLS AND CISTERNS. 

There are two methods of estimniiiig the value of excavating. It may ba 
done by allowing so much a day for every man's work, or so much per cubic 
foot, or yard, for all that is excavated. 

Well Digging. — Suppose a Well is 40 feel deep, and 5 feet in diameter, 
required the number of cubic feet, or yards? 

5 X 5 = 25 X .7654 = 19.635 X 40 = 785.4 cubic feet. 

Suppose a well .o be 4 feet 9 inches diameter, and 16^ feet from the botton lo 
Ihe surface of the water ; how mai:y gallons are therein coniained? 
4.752 X 16.5 y^ 5.375 _ 2187.152 gallons. 

Again, suppose the welTs diameter the same, and its entire depth 35 feet; re- 
quired the quantity in cubic yards of material excavated in its formation. 
4.752 X 35 X 02909 = 22.972 cubic yards. 

A cylindrical piece of lead is required 7^ inches diameter, and 168 lbs. ID 
weight j what muei be its length in inches ? 

7 52 X -3223 = 18, and 163 -^ 18 = 9.3 inches. 

Digging for Foundations, ^c. — To find the cubical quantity in a trench, ni 
tn excavated area, the lengih, width, and depth must be multiplied togelhtt 
These are usuallv given in" feet, and therefore, 10 reduce the amount into cubic 
yards it must be divided by 27. 

Suppose a trench is 40 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, required tht 
number of cubic feet, or yards ? 

40 x3 = 120 X 3 = 360 feet -f-27 = 13| yards. 

24 cubic feet of sanJ, 17 ditto clay, 18 ditto earth, equal one ton, 

1 cubic yard of earth or gravel, before digging, will occupy about IJ CvtMd 
yards when dug. 

MEASUREMENT OF MASONS' WORK. 

To masonry belong all sorts of stone-work ; and the measure made use of ia 
a foot, either superficial or solid. 
Walbj columns, blocks '>f stone or marble, &c., are measured by the cabU 

12 



134 MEASUREMENT OF MASONS* & CARPENTERS' WORK. 

foolj and pavements, slabs, chimney-pieces, &c., by ihe superficial or square 
K)Ol. Cubic or solid measure is used for ihe tnaierials, and square measure for 
ihe workmanship. In the solid measure, ihe true length, breadih and thickness, 
are taken, and multiplied continually together. In the superficial, there must be 
taken the length and breadih o( every part of the projection, which is seen with- 
out the general upright face of the building. 

Example. — In a chimney-piece, suppose the length of the mantel and slab 
each 4 feel 6 inches ; breadih of boih together 3 teet 2 inches ; leni!th of eack 
»amb 4 feel 4 inches ; breadih of both together 1 foot 9 inches. Required the 
superficial content. — Ans. 21 feet 10 inches. 

\'l-t !"• ^ 1 "-9 i"- Z 1 "• 7' '• \ 21 <•-' 1" '"<=hes. 

Rubble Walls (unhewn stone) are commonly measured by the perc'ri,whicn is 
16^ feet long, 1 foot deep, and 1^ foot thick, equivalent to '24| cubic feel. 25 cu- 
bic leet is sometimes allowed to the perch, in measuring stone before it is laid, and 
82 afier it is laid in the wall. This species of work is of iwo kinds, coursed 
and uncoursed ; in the former the stones are gauged and dressed by the hammer, 
and ihe masonry laid in horizontal courses, but not necessarily confinedto the 
same height. The uncoursed rubble wall is formed by laying the stones in the 
wall as they come to hand, without any previous gauging or working. 

27 cubic feel of mortar require for its preparation. 9 bushels of lime and 1 
cubic foot of sand. 

Lime and sand lessen about one-third in bulk when made into morlar ; like- 
wise cement and sand. 

Lime, or cement and sand, to make morlar, require as much water as is eqzsu 
to one-third ot their bulk. 

All sandstones ought to be placed on their natural beds ; from inattention to 
.nis circumstance, the stones often split oft' at the joints, and the position of the 
kH.mina much sooner admits of the destrwclive action of air and water. 

The heaviest stones are most suited for docks and harbors, breakwaters to 
bridges, &c. 

Granite is the most durable species of stone yet known for the purposes of 
buildi)ig. li varies in weight according 10 quality ; the heaviest is the most 
durable. 

MEASUREMENT OF CARPENTERS' AND JOINERS' WORK. 

To this branch belongs all the wood work of a house, such as flooring, parti- 
tioning, roofing, &c. Large and plain articles are usually measured by the square 
foot or yard, &c., but enriched mouldings, and some other articles, are often esti- 
mated by running or lineal measures, and some things are rated by the piece 

All joints, girders, and in fact all the parts of naked flooring, are measured by 
the cube, and iheir quaniiiies are found by multiplying the length by the breadth, 
and ihe product by the depth. The same rule appplies lo the measurement of 
all the timbers of a roof, and also the framed timbers used in the construction of 
partitions. 

Flooring, that is to say, the boards which cover the naked flooring, is meas- 
ured by the square. The dimensions are taken from wall to wall, and the pro- 
duct IS divided by lnO, which gives the number of squares ; but deductions must 
be made for staircases and chimneys. 

in measuring of joists, it is to be observed, that only one of their dimensions 
18 the same wiih that of ihe floor ; fo • the other exceeds the length of lie room by 
the thickness ot the wall, and one-ihird of\he same, because eachent is let into 
the wall about two-thirds of its thickness. 

No deductions are made for hearths, )«» account of the additional trouble and 
waste of materials. 

Partitions are measured from wall to wall for one dimension, and from floor to 
floor, as far as ihev extend, for ihe other. 

No deduction is made lor door- ways, on account of the trouble of framing them. 

In measuring of joiners' w(;-k, the string is made to ply close to every pan of 
the work over which it passes 

Tne measure for centering for cellars is found by making a string pass ove« 
tfte surface of ihe arch for ihe breadih, and taking the length of the cellar tot 



MEASUREMENT OF CARPENTERS* & JOINERS* WORK. 135 

lie length ; bill in groin centering, il Is usual to allow double measure, on ao- 
counl oiilieir extraordinary trouble. 

In roofina^ the length of the house in the inside, together with two-thirds of the 
thickness of one gable, is to t)e considered as the length , and the breadth is equal 
l<; double the length of a string which is stretched from the ridge down the rafter, 
and along ihe eaves-board, till it meets wiih the lop of the wull. 

For staircases, take the brearlth of all the steps, by making a line ply close 
over ihem, from the top to the bottom, and multiply the length of this line by the 
length of a step, for the whole area.— By the length of a step is meant the length 
of the from and the returns at the two ends ; and by the breadth, is to be under- 
stood the girth of lis iw<» outer surface.s, or the tread and riser. 

For the baLustraile,\.-<xke\\\*i whole length of the upper part of the handrail, 
and girt over its eni\ till it meet ihe top of the newel post, lor the leiigih ; and 
twice the length of the baluster upon the landing, with the girth of the hand- 
rail for the breadth. 

For wainscoting, i ike the compass of the room for the length ; and the height 
from the floor to the ceiling, making the string ply close into all the mouldingg 
for the breadth. Out of this must be made deductions for windows, doors, and 
chimneys, &c., but workmanship is counted for the whole, on account of the 
extraordinary trou!)le. 

For doors, it is usual to allow for their thickness, by adding it to both dimen- 
sions of length and breadth, and then to multiply them together for the area. 
If the door be paneled on hoth sides, take double its measure for the workman 
ship ; but if the one side only be paneled, take the area and iis half for the 
wt)rkmanship. — For the surrounding architrave, gird it about the outermost parts 
for its length ; and measure over it, as far as it can be seen when the door is 
open, for the breadth. 

Window-shutters, bases, Sfc, are measured in the same manner. 

In the measuring of roofing for workmanship alone, holes for chimney-shafts 
and sky-lights are generally deducted. But m measuring for work and mate- 
rials, they commonly measure in all sky lights, luiheranlights. and holes for 
the chimiiey-shalts, on account of their trouble and wasie of materia's. 

The doors and shutters, being worked on both sides, are reckoned work and 
half work. 

Hemlock and Pine Shingles are generally 18 inches long, and of the average 
■width of 4 inches. When nailed to the roof 6 inches are generally left cut to 
the weather, and 6 shingles are therefore required to a square foot. Cedar and 
Cypress Shingles are generally 20 inches long, and 6 inches wide, and therefore 
a less number are required for a '-square." On account of waste and defects, 
1000 shingles should be allowed to a square. 

Two 4 penny nails are allowed to each shingle, equal to 1200 to a square. 

The w^eiglu of a square of partitioning may be estimated at from 1500 to 
2000 lbs.; a square of smgle-joisted flooring, at from 1200 to 2000 lbs.; a square of 
framed flooring, at from 2700 to 4500 Us; asquareofdeafei\ing, at about 1500 lbs 
100 superficial feet uiake one square of boarding, flooring, &c 

In sfleciing Timber, avoid spongy heart, porous grain, and dead knots; 
choose the brightest in color, a^^d where the strong red grain appears to rise on 
the surface. 

The Carpenter will find in ihe " F ,iness Man's Assistant" Tables givin? the 
•olid contents of Timber and Logs ; ne square feet in Scantling from 2.2 to 15.16 in- 
ches ; the square feel in Boards and Planks; the contents of Logs in standard 
Board measure ; the strength and weight of Iron Cylinders, Trusses, Plates, 
Cast Iron for Beams, and Hoop Iron. 

Number of American Iron Macliine Cut Nails, in a pound, (by count.) 




408 
275 



Size. 



Number. 



K umber. 



G peiifiy . . loG I 12 penny ... 52 
8 '' . . 100 j 20 ** .... 32 



227 I 10 ** ... 66 i 30 ** .... 25 



136 



MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS WORK. 



SASH TABLE.— Size and Prices of Sashes^ Shutters, ^c. Ciiicinnali, Ohio. 



Size of Lights. 






hS 


Inches. 


In. 


8 by 10 


^ 


8 by 10 




9 by 12 


Ij 


9 by 12 


If 


10 by 12 


n 


10 by 12 


If 


10 by 14 


1^ 


10 by 15 


n 


10 by 16 


li 


11 by lo 


3? 


11 by 16 


11 


11 by 17 


1 ^ 


12 by 16 


1? 


12 by 18 


13 


12 by 20 


M 


12 by 22 


n 


12 by 24 





Size of Sash 

for 12 light Windows. 

Width. Length. 



feet. in. 

2 4 

2 4 

2 74 

2 7.J 

2 104 

2 104 

2 10.4 

2 104 

2 104 

3 2 
3 2 
3 2 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 



teet. in. 

3 10 

3 10 

4 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 



<^4 
64 
64 
64 
2.^ 

64 
5 104 
5 Gi 

5 104 

6 2A 

5 104 

6 64 

7 24 

7 104 

8 64 






cts. 

4 
5 
5 
6 
5 
6 
7 
74 



84 
84 
84 
9 

10 

11 

12 



■^>5^; 



Price of Window 
Frames. 



cts-. 
374 

624 
624 
75 
62h 

1 75 

2 124 
25 
374 
374 
50 
624 
624 
874 

124 
374 
624 



Box. j 


$ 


cts. 


2 


00 


2 


00 


2 


50 


2 


50 


2 


50 


2 


50 


2 


75 


2 


75 


3 


20 


3 


20 


3 


35 


3 


50 


3 


75 


4 


00 


4 


25 


4 


50 


4 


75 



Common. 

$ CIS. 

1 20 

1 20 

1 30 

1 30 

1 30 

1 30 

1 40 

1 40 

1 50 

1 50 

1 60 

1 70 

1 80 

1 90 

2 124 
2 30 
2 50 



Sash 1 1-2 err 1 3-4 inches thick, add 1 1-2 cents per light, to 1 3-8 inch prices ; for Plough- 
ing and Boring sash, add 1-2 cent x>er light ; all ] 3-8 sash are mude with hook rails. . 

Venitian Shutters, 1 ] -2 or 1 3-4 inches thick, add 50 cents per pair to 13-8 inch prices. 
Shutters are made 1 1-4 inches longer than sash. Pivot or Rolling Shutters, extra price. 



MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS' WORK. 

Ill these article.s, ihe conlent of a roof is found by multiplying the length of the 
rilge by the girlh over from eave§ to eaves ; making allowance in this girili fur 
tlie double row of slates at the bottom, or for how much one row of slates is laid 
over another. When the r-oof is of a> true pitch, thai is, forming a right angle at 
lop, then the breadth of the building with its half added, is the girth over both 
sides. In angles formed iu a roof, running l^rom ihe ridge lo the eaves, when the 
angle bends inwards, it is called a valley ; but when outwards, it is called a hip 
It IS not usual lo make deductions for chimney-sbafis, sky-lights or other openings. 

SLATES. [From the Quarries of Rutland County-, Vermont. '\ 



3 inch Cover. 


2 inch Cover. 


3 


inch 


Cover. 


2 inch Covet 


" 


No. of Slates 


No. of slates 






No. of Slates 


No. of slates 


Sizes of Slates. 


to the Square 


to the square 


Sizes of Slates. 


to the Square 


to the squar4 




or 100 Feet. 


or ino Feet. 






or ino Feen 


or 100 Feet. 


24 by 16 


86 


84 


18 by 


11 


174i 


1634 


24 by 14 


98 


934 


18 by 


10 


192 


180 


24 by 12 


114 


109 


18 by 


9 


213 


200 


22 by 14 


108 


imi 


16 by 


12 


184 


1714 


22 by 12 


126 


120 


16 by 


10 


2214 


205| 


22 by 10 


152 


144 


16 by 


9 


246 


2284 


20 by 14 


129 


1144 


16 by 


8 


277 


257 


20 by 12 


143 


133 J 


14 by 


10 


262 


240 


20 by 11 


146 


1454 


14 by 


9 


293 


2664 


20 by 10 


1694 


160 


14 by 


8 


327 


300 


18 by 12 


160 


150 


14 by 


7 


374 


343 



" Each Slate is 3 inches bomh or cover. The rule for measuring Slating is, to add one 
foot for all liips and vnllevs. No deduction is made for Luther;in windows, (kylights oi 
chimneys, except they are of unusual size ; then one half is deducted." 



PLASTERERS , PAVERS , AND PAINTERS WORK. 



137 



IMPORTED SLATES. 







Number of Super- 


Weieht of 


Names of Slates. 


Sizes. 


ficial F eet each 31 


each 


Mof 






of liiOO will cover. 


120() SI 


ates. 




Inches. Inches. 






Duchesses, 


24 by 12 


1100 


60 


cwt. 


Marchionesses, . . . 


22 " 12 


1000 


55 


(( 


Countesses 


20 " 10 


750 


40 


(( 


Viscountesses, . . . 


18 " 10 


666 2-3 


36 


'< 


Ladies, 


16 '' 10 


583 1-3 


31 


u 


do 


16 '^ 8 


466 2-3 


25 


(( 


do • . 


14 '' 8 


400 


22 


it 


do 


12 *' 8 


333 1-3 


18 1-2 


a 


Plantations, 


14 '' 12 


600 


33 


li 


do 


13 '' 10 


458 1-3 


25 


a 


do 


12 '' 10 


416 2-3 


23 


u 


Doubles, 


13 *' 7 


320 5-6 


17 1-2 


ii 


do. snriall, . . . 


11 '' 7 


262 1-2 


14 1-2 


ii 


School Slates for 


5ft.bv2 1-2fi 








Blackboards, . . . . 


3 feel by 3 feet. 









MEASUREMENT OF PLASTERERS' WORK. 

Plasterers' work is of two kinds, namely, ceiling — which is plastering upon lalhs 
— and rendering, which i> plnsiering upon walls, which are mea>ured"separaiely. 

The coMienis are esiimaied either by ihe fool or yanl, or square of 100 feet. 
Enriched mouldings. &c.. are rated by running or lineal measure. One foot eiira 
is aUowed for each miire. 

One half of ilie openings, windows, doors, &c., allowed to compensale for 
trouble of finishuig reiurns at lop a)id sides. 

Cornices and mouldmgs, if 12 inches or more in airi, are sometimes estimated 
by ihe sq ft. ; if less ihan 12 inches ihey are usually measured by the lineal foot. 

1 bushel of cement will cover 1 1-7 square yards at 1 inch in thickness, 
do. do. do. lA do. do. ^ | do. do. 

do. do. do.' 2} do. do. i do. do. 

1 bushel of cement and 1 of gand will caver 2^ sq. yds. at 1 inch in thickness, 
do. do. do. do. .3 do. f do. do. 

do. d(i. do. do. 4^ do. i do. do. 

1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 3^ square yds. at 1 inch in thickness, 
do. do. do. do. 4^ do. | do. do. 

do. do. do. do. 6^ do. ^ do. do. 

1 cwt. of mastic and 1 gallon of oil will cover 1^ yards at |, or 2^ at ^ inch, 
1 cuImc yard of lime, 2 yards of road or drifl sand, and 3 bushels of hair. 
\rill cover 75 yards of render and set on brick, and 70 yards on lalh, or 65 yards 
plaster, or render, 2 coats and set on brick, and 60 yards on lalh ; floated work 
will require aliout ihe same as 2 coals and set. 

Laths are i| to li lU'-hes by 4 feet in length, and are usually set 4th of an inch 
apart. A bundle contains 100. 1 buiidle of laihs and 500 nails cover about 4^ yds. 

MEASUREMENT OF PAVERS' WORK. 

Pavers' work is done by ihe square yard And the content is found by mulli- 
plying ihe length by the bread.h. Grading for paving is charged by the day. 

xMEASUREMENT OF PAINTERS' WORK. 

Painters' work is computed in square yards. Every part is measured whert 
Ihe cojor liei ; ihe meastinng line is forced into all the mouldings autd cornejrs. 



138 painters', glaziers', and plumbers' work. 



Cornices, mouldings, narrow skirling?, reveals to doors and windows, and 
generally all work not rnor© ihan nine inches wide, are valued by ilieir lenglli. 
Sash-frumes are charged so much each according lo iheir size, and ihe squares 
so much a dozen. Mouldings, cui in, are charged by the fool run, and ihe work- 
man always receives an extra price for parly-colors. Wriiing is charged by ihe 
inch, and llie price given is regulated by the skill and manner in which the work 
is executtd ; the same is true of imitations and marbling. The price of painting 
varies exceedingly, some colors being more expensive and requiring much more 
labor than others. In measurtjig open railing, it is customary to Take it as fiat 
work, which pays for the extra Tabor ; and as the rails are painted on all sides, 
the two surfaces are taken. It is customary to allow all edges and sinkings. 

MEASUREMENT OF GLAZIERS' WORK. 

Glaziers' work is sometimes measured by the sq. ft., sometimes by the piece, 
or at so much per light ; except where the glass is set in metallic frames, when 
the charge is by the foot In estimating by the sq. ft., it is customary lo include 
the whole sash". Circular or oval windows are measured as if they were square. 

TABLE SHOWING THE SIZE AND NUMBER OF LIGHTS 
TO THE 100 SQUARE FEET. 



Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lichts.! Sze. 


Lights 


6 by 8 


3u0 


12 by 14 


86 


14 by 22 


47 


20 by 20 


3d 


7 by 9 


229 


12 by 15 


80 


14 by 24 


43 


20 by 22 


33 


8 by 10 


180 


12 by 16 


75 


15 by 15 


64 


20 by 24 


30 


8 by 11 


164 


12 by 17 


71 


15 by 16 


60 


20 by 25 


29 


8 by 12 


150 


12 by 18 


61 


15 by 18 


53 


20 by 26 


28 


9 by 10 


160 


12 by 19 


63 


15 by 20 


48 


20 by 28 


26 


9 by 11 


146 


12 by 20 


60 


15 by 21 


46 


21 by 27 


25 


9 by 12 


133 


12 by 21 


57 


15 by 22 


44 


22 by 24 


27 


9 by 13 


123 


12 by 22 


55 


15 by 24 


40 


22 by 26 


25 


9 by 14 


114 


12 by 23 


52 


16 by 16 


56 


22 by 28 


23 


9 by 16 


100 


12 by 24 


50 


16 by 17 


53 


24 by 28 


21 


10 by 10 


144 


13 by 14 


79 


16 by 18 


50 


24 by 30 


20 


10 by 12 


120 


13 by 15 


74 


16 by 20 


45 


24 by 32 


19 


10 by 13 


111 


13 by 16 


69 


16 by 21 


43 


25 by 30 


19 


10 by 14 


103 


13 by 17 


65 


16 by 22 


41 


26 by 36 


15 


10 by 15 


96 


13 by IS 


61 


16 by 24 


38 


28 by 34 


15 


10 by 16 


90 


13 by 19 


58 


17 by 17 


50 


30 by 40 


12 


10 by 17 


85 


13 by 20 


55 


17 by 18 


47 


31 by 36 


13 


10 by IS 


80 


13 by 21 


53 


17 by 20 


42 


31 by 40 


12 


11 by 11 


119 


13 by 22 


50 


17 by 22 


38 


31 by 42 


12 


11 by 12 


109 


13 by 24 


46 


17 by 24 


35 


32 by 42 


10 


11 by 13 


101 


14 bv 14 


73 


18 by 18 


44 


32 by 44 


10 


11 by 14 


94 


14 by 15 


68 


18 by 20 


40 


33 by 45 


10 


11 by 15 


87 


14 by 16 


64 


18 bV 22 


36 


34 by 46 


9 


11 by 16 


82 


14 by 17 


60 


18 by 24 


33 


30 bv 52 


9 


11 by 17 


77 


14 by 18 


57 


19 by 19 


40 


32 by 56 


8 


11 by 18 


73 


14 by 19 


54 


19 by 20 


38 


33 by 56 


- 8 


12 by 12 


100 


14 by 20 


51 


19 by 22 


34 


36 by 58 


7 


12 by 13 


92 


14 l)y 21 


49 


19 bv 24 


32 1 38 l>v 58 1 


7 



MEASUREMENT OF PLUMBERS' WORK. 

Plumbers' work is rated at 30 much a pound, or else by the hundred weieht, 
of 112 i)onnds. Sheel lead, used in roofing, jrunerniL', &c., is from 7 lo 12 lbs. to 
the square foot. And a pipe of an i»)rh bore is commonly from G lo 13 lbs, lo lU§ 
yard mlen^nh. — [See T'iWe," Weight 0/ Lead ri^jeper foot'' J 



SIZE & WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPES, ROPES & CHAINS. 139 



PATENT IMPROVED 



LEAD PIPE, SIZES 
PER FOOT. 



AND WEIGHT 



Calibre. 


Weight 
per foot. 

lbs. ozs. 


Calibre 
Inches. 


Weight 
per foot. 

lbs. ozs. 


Calibre 
Inches. 


Weight 
per foot. 

lbs. ozs. 


Calibre 


Weight 
per foot. 

lbs. ozs. 


Calibre. 
Inches. 


Weight 
per foot. 


luches. 


Inches. 


lbs. ozs. 


% 


6 


Vz 


1 4 


X 


1 4 ! 


1 


4 


n 


5 




8 




1 8 




2 I 


(C 


6 


IX 


4 


(( 


10 


u 


2 


l( 


2 4 i 


IX 


2 8 


2 


5 


(( 


12 


(( 


3 


u 


2 8 ' 




3 


u 


6 


tt 


1 


% 


13 


(( 


3 


" 


3 8 


;c 


7 


u 


1 8 




1 


(( 


4 


C( 


4 


n^'t 


11 


K 


8 


t' 


1 8 


1 


1 8 ' 


(V 


5 


3 1 


13 




10 j 


(( 


2 


u 


1 12 


1>^ 


3 


3n:i 


15 


1 (i 


12 


(( 


2 12 


(( 


2 


(. 


3 8 


4- i 


13 


(( 


14 


X 


12 


(C 


2 8 


" 


4 


4^^-; 


20 


« 


1 


a 


14 


(( 


3 


(( 


4 8 


5 


22 



Sheet Lead. — Weio;ht of a Square Foot, 2^, 3, 3J, 4, 4J, 5, 6, 7, 
84, 9, 10 lbs. and upwards. 

BOSTON LEAD PIPE, SIZES AND WEIGHT PER FOOT. 



1-2 Inch. 1 


5-8 Inch. 1 


3-4 Inch. 


1 Inch. 


11-4 Inch. 


11-2 Inch. 


1 3-4 Inch. 


2 Inch. 


lb$. 


oz. lbs. 


o..\ 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. oz. 


lbs. 


cz. 


^65. oz. 




10 


2 


12 


1 


1 


1 


8 


2 


4 


3 5 


3 


10 


4 


12 




12 


3 




1 


6 


1 


12 


2 


8 


3 12 


4 


3 


5 


8 




16 






1 


12 


2 




2 


13 


4 4 


5 


2 


7 


12 


1 


4 






2 


4 


2 


G 


3 


3 


4 10 










1 


8 






3 


2 


2 


14 


3 


15 


6 










1 


11 






3 


14 


3 


13 
















1 


14 










5 


















2 


4 










6 


4 

















COMPARATIVE STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF ROrES 
AND CHAINS. 



h 




■cl 

£.1 




,|s 


i-s 


t- 


^r^ 


fi5 


b 


Fm 




3^ 


2J 


H 


4| 


t 


5 


52 


t\ 


5f 


7 


i 


6i 


9f 


^TT 


7 


III 


t 


8 


15 


\h 


8* 


19 


i 


9i 


21 


if 



^ 














r!Tt 




" e3 


Cw 


ei 


o 






a 


(i< 


^ 



8 



1 5^ 
1 16| 

10^ 2 10 

14 

18 

22 

27 

32 

37 



3 


5i 


4 


3^ 


5 


2 


6 


H 


7 


7 


8 13^ 



«2 




oA 




c«- 3^ 


C fl 


o " 


C-fi 


c-S 








E-2 


II 


is 


11 
^1 


3 


(H 


o 


fa 


; 10 


23 


^ 


43 


10^ 


28 


i# 


49 


11 + 


30J- 


1 in 


56 


12| 


36 


ItV 


63 


13 


39 


1* 


71 


13f 


45 


IfV 


79 


14^ 


48^ 


u 


f«7 


15^ 


56 


Ir'ff 


96 


16 


60 


If 


106 



10 

11 11 

13 8 

14 18 
H) 14 
18 11 
20 8 
22 13 
24 18 



Note — It must b" understood and also borne in mind, that, in eslimalinir ihe 
amounl of tensile strain to which a bod}' i-* sul)jecied, the weight of the body 
it-elf must also be laken into account ; for accordnig lo its position so may it 
approximate to ns whole weight in tendin? to produce exiension waliin ii>elf; 
a» ill the almost consiant application of ropes and cl^aius to great depths, cvU' 
iiderable lieights, ^f-c. 



140 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. 

l^From Templeton's Workshop Companion.^ 

Materials of construction are liable to four different kinds of strain; 
viz., stretching-, crushing, transverse action, and torsion or twisting : the 
first of which depends upon the body's tenacity alone j the second, on its 
resij^tance to compression; the third, «n its tenacity and compression com- 
bined 3 and the fourth, on that property by which it opposes any acting force 
tending to change from a straight linC; to that of a spiral direction, the 
fibres of which the body is composed. 

In bodies, the power of tenacity and res'stance to compression, in the di- 
rection of their length, is as the cross section of their area multiplied by the 
results of experiments on similar bodies, as exhibited in the following tables. 

Table showing the Tenacities, Resistances to Compression, and other Prop- 
erties oftlte common Materials of Construction. 



Names of Bodies. 



Ash, 

Beech, . 
Brass, 
Brick, . 
Cast Iron, 

Copper (wrought), . 
Elm, 

Fir, or Pine, white, 
'« *' Red, . 

" *< Yello V, 

Granite ^Aberdeen), 
Gun-metal (copper 8, 

and tin 1). . 
Malleable Iron, 
Larch, 
Lead, 

Mahogany, Honduras, 
Marble, . 
Oak, 

Rope (1 in. in cncum.) 
Steel, 
Stone, Bath, . 

" Craigleith, , 

" Dundee, 

** Portland, 
Tin (ca-^t) 
Zinc (sheet) 



'» i¥- p^^tonirib; 



Absolute . 



Tenacity 



to coMipres- 



sq. inch 



per sq. inch. 



14130 
1222.5 
17968 
275 
13434 
33000 
9720 
12346 
11800 
11835 



35838 

56000 

12240 

1824 

11475 

551 

IISSO 

200 

128000 

478 

772 

2661 

857 

4736 

9120 



8548 

10304 

562 

86397 

1033 

2028 

5375 

5445 

10910 



556S 

8000 
6060 
9504 



5490 
6630 
3729 



Compared with Cast Iron. 



Its 
strength 



0.23 
0.15 
0.435 

1.000 

0.21 
0.23 
0.3 
0.25 



0.65 
1.12 

0.136 
0.096 
24 

0.25 



182 
365 



Its ex- 
teusibiUty 



2.6 
2.1 

0.9 



1.0 

2.9 
24 
2.4 
2.9 



1.25 

0.86 
2.3 
25 
2.9 

2.8 



0.75 
05 



Its 

stiffness 



0.0;S9 
0.073 
0.49 

1.000 

0.073 

0.1 

0.1 

0.087 



0.535 
1.3 

0.0585 
0.038 

0.487 

0.093 



25 
0.76 



RESISTANCE TO LATERAL PRESSURE, OR TRANSA^ERSE ACTION. 

The strength of a square or rectangular beam to resist lateral pressure, 
acting in a perpendicular direction to its length, is as the hreadih nnd squ:ire 
^f ^he depth; and inversely as the length 3— thus, a beam twice O^e bfeadlJ^ 



ELAStlClTV AND STftENGllJ Ot TlMSES. 



141 



of another, all other circumstances being alike, equal twice the strength of 
the other ; or twice the depth, equal four times the strength, and twice the 
length, equal only half the strength, &c., according to the rule. 

Table of Data, containing the Results of Experiments on the Elasticity 
and Strength of various Species of Timber, by Mr. Barlow. 



Species of 


Value of 


Value of 


Species of 


Value of Value of 


Timber. 


E. 


S. i 


Timber. 


E. 1 S. 


Teak, 


174.7 


2462 . 


Elm, . 


50.64 


1013 


Poena, 


122.26 


2221 


Pitch pine. 


88.68 


1632 


English Oak, . 


105. 


1672 


Red pine, . 


133. 


1341 


Canadian do. 


155.5 


1766 


NewEngjland Fir. 


158.5 


1102 


Dantzic do. 


86.2 


1457 


Ricra Fir, . 


90. 


1100 


Adriatic do. 


70.5 


1383 i 


Mar Forest do. 


63. 


1200 


Ash, . 


119. 


2026 1 


Larch, 


76. 


900 


Beech, 


98. 


1556 1 


Norway Spruce. 


105.47 


1474 



To find the dimensions of a beam capable of sustUning a given iveight^ with a giv* 

en degree of defection, when supported at both ends. 

RuLE.--Muliiply the vveiuht to be supported in lbs. by the cube of the length 
m feet ; divide the product by 32 times ilie tabular value of E, multiplied iulo the 
given deflection in inches ; and the quotient is the breudih multiplied by the cube 
of the depth in inches. 

Note 1.— "When the beam is intended to be square, then the fourth root of the quotient 
is the breadth and depth required. 

Note 2.— If the beam is to be cylindrical, multiply the quotient by 1.7, and the fourth 
root of the produce is the diameter. 

Ex. The distance between the supports of a beam of Riga fir is J6 feet, and 
the weight it must be capable of sustaining in the middle of its length is 8000 lbs, 
with a deflection of not more than 3 of an inch ; what must be the depth of the 
beam, supposing the breadth 8 inches? 

16 X 8000 ^ 

on V. o.. V. -- = 151~5 -^ 8 = 3V1897 = 12.35 in., the depth. 

To determine the absolute strength of a rectangular beam of timber, when supported 
at both ends, and loaded in the middle of its length, as beams in general ought to 
be calculated to, so that they may be rendered capable of withstanding all accident- 
al cases of emergency. 

Rule.— Multiply the tabular value of S by four times the depth of the beam in 
inches, and by the area of the cross section in inches; divide the product by the 
distance between the supports m inches, and the quotient will be the absolute 
strength of the beam in lbs. 

Note 1.— If the beam be not laid horizontally, the distance between the supports, for 
calculation, must be the horizontal distance. 

Note 2.— One fourth of the weight obtained by the rule, is the greatest weight that ought 
to be applied in practice as permanent load. 

Note 3.— If the load is to be applied at any other point than the middle, then the strength 
will be as the product of the two distances is to the square of hnlf the length of the beam 
between the supports ;— or, twice the distance from one end, multiplied by twice from the 
other, and divided by the whole length, equal the effective length of the beam. 

Ex. In a building 18 feet in width, an engine boiler of .5J tons (2240 lbs. to a 
ton) IS to be fixed, the center of which to be 7 feet from the wall, and having two 
pieces of red pine, !0 mches by 6, which I can lay across the two walls for the 
purpose of shniTing it at each end,— may I with sufficient confidence apply them, 
■o as to effeci this objert ? ' 

2240X5.5 -f- 2 =r 6160 lbs. to carry at each end. 

And 18 feet — 7 = 11, double each, or 14 and 22, then 14X22 -4- 18 = 17 feet, 
or 204 inches, effective length of beam. ' 

Tabular value of S, red pine, =1341X4X10X60 -^ 204 = 15776 Iba. the abMX 
rote strength of each piece of timber at that point. 



142 



STRENGTH Ot RECTANGtJtAll ^£AMS. 



To determine the dimensionx of a rectangular beam capable of supporting a J «< 
weighty with a given degree of deflection^ whenflxtd at one end. 

Role. — Divide the weight to be supported, in lbs., by the tabular value of E, 
muliiplied by the breadth and deflection, hoth in inches ; and the cube root ol' the 
quotient, multiplied by the length in feet, equal the depth required in inches. 

Ex. A beam of ash is intended to bear a load of 7U0 lbs. at its extremity ; its 
length being 5 feet, breadih 4 inches, and the defleciion not to exceed ^ an inch. 

Tabular value of E = 119X4X-5 = 238 the divisor ; 

then 700 -f- 238 = ^^MX 5 = 7.25 inches, depth of the beam. 

To find the absolute strength of a rectangular beam^ when fixed at one end, andload" 
ed at the other 

Rule — Multiply the value of S by the depth of the beam, and by the area of 
its section, boih in inches ; divide the product by the leverage in inches, and the 
quotient equal the absolute strength ot the beam \\\ ll)s. 

Ex. A beam of Riga fir, 12 inches hy 4^, and projecting 6^ feet from the wall ; 
what is the greatest weight it will support at the extremity of its length? 

Tabular value of S = 11 00. 12X4.5 = 54 sectional area. 
Then, 1100X12X54 H- 78 = 9138.4 lbs. 

When fracture of a beam is produced by vertical pressure, the fibres of the 
lower section of fracuire are separated by extension, whilst at the same lime 
those of the upper portion are destroyed by compression ; hence exists a point in 
section where neither the one nor the other takes place, and which is distinguished 
as the point of neutral axis. Therefore, by the law of fracture thus established, 
and proper data of tenacity and compression given, as in the preceding table, 
we are enabled to form metal beams of strongest section with the least possible 
material. Thus, in cast iron, the resistance to compression is nearly as 6^ to 1 
of tenacity, consequently a beam of cast iron, to be of strongest section, mast be 
of the foll{»wing form, and a parabola in the direction of its length, 

ilhe quantity of material in the bottom flange being about C.j times 
that of the upper. But such is not the case with beams of tim- 
ber ; for although the tenacity of timber be on an average twice 
that of its resistance to compression, its flexibility is so great, 
that any considerable length of beam, where columns cannot be 
situated to its support, requires lo be strengthened or trussed by 
iron rods, as in the following manner. 




And these applications of principle not only tend to diminish deflection, but the 
required purpose is also more efl'ectively attained, and that by lighter pieces of 
limber. 

To ascertain the absolute strength of a east iron beam of the preceding form , or thai 
of strongest section. 

Rule. — Multiply the sectional area of the bottom flanse in inches by the depth 
of the beam in inches, and divide the product by the distance between the sun- 
ports, also in inches ; and 514 times the quotient equal the absolute stren]gih of 
the beam in cwts. 

The strongest form in which any given quantity of matter can be disposed is 
that of a holow cylinder; and it has been demonstrated that the maximum of 
strength is obtained in cast iron, when the thickness of the annulus, or ring, 
amounts to one-fifth of the cylinder's external diameter; the relative strength of 
M solid to that of a hollow cylinder being as the diameters of their sections. ( ^94 
Tables.) 



WEIGHT CAST IRON BEA3IS WILL SUSTAIN. 



143 



A Table showing the }Veighi or Pressure a beam rf Cast Iron. 1 inch in 
breadth, u-itl sjistain, without destroying its elastic force ichen it is snp^ 
ported at each end, and loaded in the middle of its length, and also the 
deflection in the middle which that weight will yroduce. By Mr, 
Hodgkinso7i, Manchester, 



Length. 


6 feet. 


7 feet. 


Depth 


Weight 


Defl. 


Weight Defl. 


in in. 


in lbs 


in in- 


ill lbs. 


in in. 


3 


1278 


.24 


1089 


.33 


3* 


1739 


.205 


1482 


.28 


4 


2272 


18 


1936 


.245 


44 


2S75 


.16 


2450 


.217 


5 


3560 


.144 


3050 


.196 


6 


5112 


.12 


4356 


.163 


7 


6958 


.103 


5929 


.14 


8 


9088 


.09 


7744 


.123 


9 






9801 


.109 


10 






12100 


.098 


11 










12 










13 










14 












32 feet. 


14 feet. 


6 


2548 


•48 


2184 


.65 


7 


3471 


.41 


2975 


.58 


8 


4532 


.36 


3S84 


.49 


9 


5733 


.32 


4914 


.44 


10 


7083 


.28 


6071 


.39 


11 


8570 


.26 


7346 


.36 


12 


10192 


.24 


8736 


.33 


13 


11971 


.22 


10260 


.31 


14 


13883 


.21 


11900 


.28 


15 


15937 


.19 


13660 


.26 


16 


18128 


.18 


15536 


.24 


17 


20500 


.17 


17500 


.23 


18 


22932 


.16 


19656 


.21 



Weight Defl. 
in lbs. in in. 



W^eight Uefl. 
in lbs. in in. 



Weig.it Ijefl. 
ill lbs. in in 



954 .420 

1298 .365 

1700 .32 

2146 284 

2650 .256 

3816 .213 

5194 .183 

6784 |.16 

8586 .142 

1{)6()0 .128 

12826 .117 

15264 .107 



16 feet. 



1912 ,.85 

2603 1.73 

3396 1.64 

4302 1.57 

5312 1.51 

6428 '.47 

7648 .43 

8978 .39 

10412 .36 

11952 .34 

13584 .32 

15353 1.30 

17208 !.28 



1164 I 

1520 ! 

1924 I 

2375 

3420 

4655 j 

6080 I 

7695 ' 

9500 

11495 I 

13680 

16100 ' 

18600 



.54 


765 


.66 


.46 


1041 


..57 


.405 


1360 


.5 


36 


1721 


.443 


.32 


2125 


.4 


.27 


3060 


.33 


.23 


4165 


.29 


203 


5440 


.25 


.18 


6885 


.22 


.162 


8500 


.2 


.15 10285 


.182 


•135 12240 


.17 


.125 14400 


.154 


.115 


16700 


.143 



1699 


1.08 


2314 


.93 


3020 


.81 


3825 


.72 


4722 


.64 


5714 


.59 


6796 


.54 


7980 


.49 


9255 


.46 


10624 


.43 


12080 


.40 


13647 


.38 


15700 


.86 



1580 

2082 

2720 

3438 

4250 

5142 

6120 

7182 

8330 

9562 

10880 

12282 

13752 



1.34 
1.14 
1.00 
.89 
.8 
.73 
.67 
.61 
.57 
.53 
.5 
.47 
.44 



Note. — This Table shows the greatest weishi that ever ought io be laid upon 
abeam for permanent load ; and, if there be any liability lo ierks, &c., ample 
allowance must be made ; also, the weight cf the beam itself must be included. 
[See Tables of Cast Iron.) 

To find the weight of a cast iron h(am of given dimensions. 

Rule. — Multiply the sectional area in inches by the length in feet, and by 3.2, 
the product equal the \veight in lbs. 

Ex. Required the weight of a uniform rectangular beam of cast iron, 16 feet 
in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 1^- inch in thickness 

li X 1-5 X IG X 3.2 = 844.8 lbs. 
RESISTANCE OF BODIES TO FLEXURE BY VERTICAL PRESSURE. 

When a piece of timber is employed as a column or support, its tendency to 
yielding by compression is different according to the proportion between its 
length and area of its cross seciion ; and .<!upposing the tbrm that of a cylinder 
whose length is less than seven or eight times its diameier, it is impossil)le to 
bend it by any force applied longitudinally, as it will be destroyed by splining 
before that bendin? can take place ; but when the b-ngih exceeds this, the col- 
•mn will bend under a certain load, and be ultimately destroyed by a similar 



144 SLASTlCiTY 0^ TOUSlOl^. * 

kind of action to that which lias nlace in ihe transverse strain. Columns of cast 
iron and of other bodies are also similarly circumstanced. 

When the length of a cast iron column wiih flat ends equals about :hirty irnes 
its diameter, fracmre will be produced wholly by bending or ihe maienal. \\ iie-n 
of less length, fracture takes place partly by crushing and pariiy by bending. 
But, when the column is enlarged in the middle of its length irom one and a lia't 
to twice its diameter at the ends, by being ca^t hollow, the strength is greater by 
one-seventh than in a solid column containijig the same quaniiiy of material. 
To determine the dimensions of a support or column to bear, without sensible curvU' 

ture, a given pressure in the direction of its axis. 

Rule. — Multiply the pressure to be supported in lbs. by the squar-e of the col- 
umn's length in feet, and divide the product by twenty times the tabular value of 
E ; and the quotient will be equal to the breadth multipliexl by the cube of th^ 
least thickness, both being expressed in inches. 

Note 1.— When the pillar or support is a square, its side will be the fourth root of the 
quotient. 

Note 2.— If the pillar or column be a cylinder, multiply the tabular value of E by 12, 
and the fourth root of the quotient equal the diameter. 

Ex. 1. What should be the least dimensions of an oak support, to l:ear a 
weight of 2240 lbs, without sensible flexure, its breadth being 3 inches, and its 
length 5 feet ? 

Tabular value of E = 10^, 
2240 V 52 

Ex. 2 Required the side of a square piece of Riga fir, 9 feet in length, to bear 
a permanent weight of 6000 lbs. 

Tabular value of E =:96, 
, 6000 X 92 —- 

and— — ---^ = ^^/2o3 = 4 inches nearly. 
20 X ^6 

ELASTICITY OF TORSION, OR RESISTANCE OF BODIES TO TWISTING. 

The angle of flexure by torsion is as the length and extensibility of the body 
directly and inversely as the diameter; hence, the length of a bar or shaft being 
given, the power, and the leverage ihe power acts with, being known, and also 
the number of degrees of torsion that will not aflect the action of the machine, to 
determine the diameter in cast iron with a given angle of flexure. 

Rule. — Multiply the power in lbs. by the length of the shaft in feet, and by the 
leverage in teet ; divide the product by fifiy-five times the number of degrees in 
the angle of torsion ; and the fourth root of the quotient equal the shaft's diame- 
ter in inches. 

Ex. Required the diameters for a series of shafts 35 feet in length, and to 
transmit a power equal to 1-245 lbs., acting at the circumference ot a wheel 2^ 
feet radius, so that the twist of the shafts on the application of the power may not 
exceed one degree. 

1245X35X2.5 , . 

~^^-7~ — =4^1981 = 6.67 inches in diameter. 

55 X 1 
To determine the side of a square shaft to resist torsion with a given flexure. 
Rule. — ^Multiply the power in pounds by the leverage it acts with in feet, and 
also by the length of the shaft in feet ; divide this product by 92.5 times the angle 
of flexure in degrees, and the square root of the quotient equals the area of ihe 
shaft in inches. 

Ex. Suppose the length of a shaft to be 12 feet, and to be driven by a power 
equal to 700 lbs., acting at 1 foot from the centre of the shaft — required the area 
of cross section, so that it may not exceed 1 degree of flexure. 

700X1X12 „ 

r^S^J; =2^90.8 ^ 9.53 inches. 
92.5 X 1 

Relative strength of Bodies to resist Torsion, Lead being 1. 



Tin 1.4 

Copper 4.3 

Yellow Brass 4.6 



Gun Metal 5.0 11 English Iron 10.1 

Cast Iron 9.0 Blistered Steel 16 6 

Swedish Iron 9.5 II Shear Sleei ....,.., 17.0 



STEE^'GTH OP MATERIALS — GRIER, AND OTHERS. 14t) 

ft T R E N G T H O F MATERIALS. 

iFrom Griefs Mechanic's Calculator^ dj^c] 

Bar of ifioN. — The average breaking weight of a Bar of Wrought Iroh, 
i mr.n square, is 25 tons ; its elasticity is destroyed, however, by about iwo- 
fifths of that weight, or 10 tons. It is extended, within the limits ot its elas- 
ticity. .000096, or one-tenthousandlh part of an inch for every ton of straia 
per square inch of sectional area. Hence, the greatest constant load should 
never e.xceed one-fifth of its breaking weight/ or 5 tons for every square 
inch of sectional area. 

The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with cast iron, is as 14 
to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron bars, 3 inches deep, 1 1-2 inches 
thick, and 33 inches between the supports, will carry 4 1-2 tons. 

Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot is about 120 
pounds 

Floors. — The least load on a square foot is about 16*J pounds. 

Roofs.— Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51 1-2 pounds. 

Beams. — When a beam is supported in the middle and loaded at each 
end, it will bear the same weight as when supported at both ends and load- 
ed in the middle ] that is, each end will bear half the weight. 

Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-fiflh of their 
ultimate strength. 

The strength of similar beams vnries inversely as their lengths; that is, 
if a becfm 10 feet long will support 1030 pounds, a similar beam 20 feet long 
would support only 500 pounds. 

A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth part the weight 
which it wou'd if supported at both ends. 

When a beam is fixe<l at both ends, and loaded in the middle, it will bear 
one-half more than it will when loose at both ends. When the beam is load- 
ed uniformly throughout it will bear double. \Vheji the beam is tixed at 
DJ'th ends, and loaded uniformly, it will bear triple the weight. 

In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direction, its strength or 
strain will be equal to that of a beam of the same breadth, thickness, and 
material, but only of the length of the horizontal distance between the points 
of support. 

In the construction o? beams, it is necessary that their form should be 
such that they will be equally strong throughout. If abeam be fixed at one 
end, and loaded at the other, and the breadth uniform throughout its length, 
•hen. that the beam may be equally strong throufrhout, its form must be that 
jf a parabola. This form is generally used in the beams of steam engines. 

When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points that are least 
strained, so that all the sections are similar figures, whether it be supported 
at each end and loaded in the middle, or supported in the middle cind load- 
ed at each end, the outline should be a cubic parabola. 

When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the same breadth 
throughout, then, i.f the load br uniformly distributed throughout the length 
of the beam, the line bounding the compressed side should be a semi-eUipse. 

The same form should be made use of for the rails of a wagon-way, 
where they have to resist the pressure of a load rolling over them. 

Similar p/o^es of the same thickness, either supported at the ends or all 
round, will carry the same weight either uniformly distributed or laid ob 
■imilar points, whatever be their extent. 



U6 STftENGTil OF MATERIALS — Gftl£ll. 

The lateral strength of any beam^ or bar of wood stones mptal^&,c., is hi 
proportion to its breadth multiplied by its depth^. In square beams ihe 
lateral strengths are in proportion to the cibes of the sides, and in geoefal 
oflike-sided beams as the cubes of the similar sides of the section. 

The lateral strength of any beam or bar, one end being fixed in the will 
and the other projectinjr, is inversely as the distance of the weight from the 
section acted upon ; and the strain upon any section is directly as the dis- 
tance of the weight from that section. 

The absolute strength oi' ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise, is in proportion 
to the squares of their diameters. All cylindrical or prismatic rods are 
equally strong in every part, if they are equally thick, but if not they will 
break where the thickness is least. 

The strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength of a solid 
©ne as the difference between the fourth powers of the exterior and interior 
diameters of the lube, divided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of 
ihe diameter ot a solid cylinder. — the quantity of matter in each being the 
same. Hence, from this it will be found, that a hollow cylinder is one half 
stronger than a solid one having the same weight of material. 

The strength of a column to resist being crushed is directly as the square 
of the diameter, provided it is not so long as to have a chance of bending. 
This is true in metals or stone, but in timber the proportion is rather greater 
»han the square. 

MODELS PROPORTIONED TO MACHINES. 

The relation of models to machines, as to strength, deserves the partieu 
lar attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly proportioned in 
all its parts as a model, yet the machine, if constructed in Ihe same propor- 
tion, will not be sufficiently strong in every partj hence, particular attention 
should be paid to the kind of strain the different parts are exposed to; and 
from the statements which follow, the proper dimensions of the structure 
may be determined. 

If the gi.rain to draw asunder in the model be 1, and if the structure is 8 
times larger than the model, then the stress in the structure will be 8^ equa' 
612. If the structure is 6 limes as large as the model, then the stress oii 
the structure will be 6^ equal 216, and so on ; therefore, the structure will be 
much less firm than the model ; and this the more, as the structure is cube 
times greater than the m«idel. If we wish to determine the greatest size 
we can make a machine of which we have a model, we have, 

The greatest weight which the beam of the model can bear, divided by 
the weight which it actually sustains equal a quotient which, when multi 
plied by the size of the beam in the model, will give the greatest possible 
size of the same beam in the structure. 

Ex. — If a beam in the mod^l be 7 inches long, and bear a weight of 4 lbs. 
but is capable of bearing a weight of 26 lbs. 5 what is the greatest length 
which we can make the corresponding beam in the structure ? Here 
26 -j- 4 = 6-5, therefore, 6-5x7=: 455 inches. 

The strength to resist crushing, increases from a model to a structure lo 
proportion to their size, but, as above, the strain increases as tne cubes; 
wherefore, in this case, also, the model will be stronger than the machine 
and the greatest size of the structure will be found by employing the square 
root of the quotient in the last rule, instead of the quotient itself; thus. 

If the greatest weight which the column in a model can bear is 3 cwt., 
iDd if it actually bears 28 lbs., then, if the column be 18 inches high, we hare 

V/( -^ ) = 3-464 ; wherefore 3464 X 18 = 62 352 
incnei, the length of the column in the stractore. 



STKENaTH OF MATERIALS — ADCOCK. l4? 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

[From Adcock^s Engineer.'] 

List of metals, arranged according to their strength. — Steel, wrought* 
iron, cast-iron, platinum, silver^ copper, brass, gold, tin, bismuth, zinc, anti- 
mony, lead. 

According to Tredgold's and Duleau's experiments, a piece of the best 
bar-iron 1 square inch across the end would bear a weight of about 77,373 
lbs., while a similar piece of cast-iron would be torn asunder by a weight 
of from 16,243 to 19,464 lbs. Thin iron wires, arranged parallel to each 
other, and presenting a surface at their extremity of 1 square inch, will 
carry a mean weight of 126,340 lbs. 

List of woods, arranged according to their strength. — Oak^ alder, lime, 
box, pine [sylv.), ash, elm, yellow pine, fir. 

A piece of well-dried pine wood, presenting a section of 1 «.qunre inch, is 
able, according to Eytelwein, to support a weight of from 15.646 lbs. to 
20.408 lbs., whilst a similar piece of oak wil! carry as much as i^o.HoO lbs. 

Hempen cords, tw,sted, will support the tollowuig weights to the square 
inch of their s<ction : 

i-inch to 1 inch thick, 8,746 lbs.5 1 to 3 inches thick, 6,830 lbs. 3 3 to 5 
inches ihick. 5.345 lbs. 5 5 to 7 inches thick, 4,860 lbs. 

Tredgold gives the following rule for finding the weight in lbs. which a 
hempen rope will be capable of supporting: Multiply the square of the 
circumference in inches by 200, and the product will be the quantity sought. 

In the practical application of these measures of absolute strength, that 
of metals should be reckoned at one-half, and that of woods and cords at 
one-third of their estimated value. 

In a paralielopipedon of uniform th'rkness, supported on two points and 
loaded in the middle, the lateral strength is directly as the product of the 
breadth into the square of the depth, and inversely as the length. Let W 
represent the lateral strength of any material, estimated by the weight, b the 
breadth, and d the depth of its end. and / the distance between the points of 
^uppo^t •, then VV = fd-b -r- /. 

If the paralielopipedon be fastened only at one end in a horizontal posi- 
tion, and the load be applied at the opposite end, VV = fd^b -f- 4/. 

It is to be observed that the three dimensions, 6, d, and /, are to be taken 
in the same measure, and that b bf so great that no lateral curvature ar se 
from the weight ; y in each formula represents the later.il strength, wh.ch 
varies in different materials, and which mu^t t)e learnt experimentally. 

A beam having a rectangular end. whose breadth is two or three times 
greater than the breadth of another beam has a power of suspension re- 
spectively two or three times greater than it j if the end be two or thrpe 
times deeper than the end of the other, the suspension power of that wh ch 
has the greater depth exceeds the suspension power of the other, four or 
nine times 5 if its length be two or three times greater than the length of 
another beam, its power of suspension will be .^ or 1-3 respectively that of 
the other 5 provided that in each case the mode of suspension, the position 
of the weight, and other circumstances be similar. Hence it follows that a 
beam, one of whose sides tapers, has a greater power of suspension if 
placed on the slant than on the broad side and that the powers of suspen- 
sion in both cases are in the ratio of their s-des ; so, for instance, a beam, 
one of whose sides is double the width of the other, will carry twice as 
much if placed on the narrow side, as it would if laid on the wide one. 

In a piece of round timber (a cylinder) the power of stispension is in 
proportion to the diameters cubed, and inversel}' as the length; thus a 
beam with a diameter two or three times longer than that of another, will 
carry a weight 8 or 27 limes heavier respectively than that whose diameter 
is unity, the mode of fastening and loading it being similar in both cases. 



148 STTtENGTH OF MATERIALS — ADCOCK. 



The lateral streng-th of square timber is to that of a tree whence it is 
hewn as 10 : 17 uearly. 

A cciisiderable advantag'e is frequently secured by using" hollow cylinders 
instead of solid ones, vvh-ch. with an equal expenditure of materials, have 
far greater streng^th, provided only that the solid part of the cylinder be of 
a sufficient thickness, and that the workmanship be good; especially that 
in cast metal beams the thickness be uniform, and the metal free from 
flaws. According to Eytehvein, such hollow cylinders are to solid ones ot 
equal weig-ht of metal as 1.212 : 1, when the inner semi-diameter is to the 
outer as 1 : 2 ; according to Tredgold as 17 : 10, when the two semi-diame- 
ters are to each other as 15 : 25, and as 2 : 1^ when they are to each other as 
7: 10. 

A method of increasing the suspensive power of timber supported at 
both ends, is, lo saw down from ^ to J of its depth, and forcibly drive in a 
wedg"e of metal or hard wood, until the timber is slightly raided at the mid- 
dle out of the horizontal line. By experiment it was found that the suspen- 
sive power of a beam thus cut 1-3 of its depth was increased l-19th, when 
cut 4 it was increased l-29th, and when cut 3-4th through it was increased 
l-87lh. 

The force required to crush a body increases as the section of the body 
increases •, and this quantity being constant, the resistance of the body 
diminishes as the height increases. 

According to Eytelwein's experiments, the strength of celumns or tim- 
bers of rectangular form in resisting compression is, as 

1. The cube of their thickness (the lesser dimension of their section). 
2. As the breadth (the greater dimension of their section). 3 inversely as 
the square of their length. 

Cohesive power of Bars of Metal one inch square, in Tuns. 

Iron. Swedish bar.- .... 29.20 



Do., Russian bar 26.73 

Do., Engl sh bar 25.00 

Steel, cast 59.93 



Copper, wrouo^ht . . . 15.08 

Guii metal 16.23 

Copper, cast 8.51 

Brass, cast, yellow . . . 8.01 



Do., blstered 59.43 i Iron, cast 7-87 

Do., sheer 56.97 | Tia, cast 2.11 



RELATIVE STRENGTH OF CAST AND MALLEABLE IRON. 

It has been found, in the course of the experiments made by Mr Hodg- 
kinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain that cast iron will bear in 
the way of tension, before breaking, is about seven tons and a hnlf per 
square inch ; the weakest, in the course of 16 trials on various descriptions, 
bearing 6 tons, and the strongest 9 3-4 tons. The exp*^riments of Telford 
and Brown show that malleable iron will bear, on an averag«^, 27 tons 3 the 
weakest bearing 21-. and the strongest 29 tons. On approaching the break- 
ing point, cast iron may snap in an instant, without any pievious symptom, 
while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half its breaking weight, ard so 
continues to stretch till it breaks. The experiments of Hodgkinson and 
Fairbairn show al^o that cast iron is capable of sustaining compression to 
the extent of nearly 50 tons on the square mch 5 the weakest bearing 3G«J 
tons, and the strongest 60 tons. In this respect, malleable iron is much in- 
ferior to cast iron. With 12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts in 
length, and expands laterally 5 though it will bear 27 tons, or more, without 
actual fracture. 



Rennie states that cast iron may be crushed with a weight of 93,000 lbs., 
and brick with one of 562 lbs. on the square inch. 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



U9 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 

[From Lowndes* Engineer's Hand-book, — Liverpool^ I860.] 

SOLID, BECTANGULAR, AND ROUND : TO FIND THEIR STRENGTH, 

Square and rectangular, 

(Depth ins.)^ X Thickness ins. rr. , . tvt r> i • • u* * - 

5 — ?- / , ^. X Tabular No. = Breaknig weight, tons. 

Length, ft. 

Round. 

( lame er ins j_ I'^bular No. = Breaking weight, tons. 
Length in ft. ' ■ 

Hollow, 

(Outside dia. ins. p — (Inside dia. ins.) , rr. u i tvt d i- • k« 

^ 5 — - — T—^ '- X Tabular No. = Breaking weight 

Length; ft. 
tons. 



Thickness not exceeding 



1 inch for iron. | 2 ins. for iron. I 3 ins. for iron. 
3 ins. for wood, i 6 ins. for wood. 112 ins. for wood. 



Square and Rectangular, 



Cast and Wrought Iron 


•1 


•85 


•7 


Teak and greenheart 


•36 


•32 


•26 


Pitch pine, and Cana- 








dian oak .... 


•25 


•22 


•18 


Fir, red pine, and Eng- 








lish oak .... 


•18 


•16 


•13 



Round, 



Cast and Wrought Iron 
Teak and greenheart . 
Fir and Ensilish oak . 



•8 

•28 

•14 



•68 
•25 
•125 



•56 

•2 

•1 



Tojind the Breaking Weight in lbs. use the Tabular No. below. 



Thicknesg not exceeding j 



1 inch for iron. | 2 ins. for iron. 
3 ins. for wood. I 6 ins. for wood. 



3 ins. for iron. 
12 ins. for wcx^d. 



Square and Rectangular. 



Iron 

Teak 

Fir and oak .... 


2240 
800 
400 


1900 
710 
355 


1570 
570 
285 



13» 



l«'>0 BEAMS — CAST IRON FLANGED. 

Round. 



Iron . . 
Teak . . 
Fir and oak 



1800 


1570 


1260 


640 


570 


460 


320 


285 


230 



Though wrought and cnst iron are represented in these rules as of equal 
strength, it should be observed that while a cast iron bar 1 inch X 1 inch X 
1 foot inch long, of average quality, will break with one ton. a similar bar 
of wrought iron only loses its elasticity, and deflects l-16th of an inch, yet 
as it can only carry a further weight by destroying its shape and increasing 
the deflection, it is best to calculate on the above basis : — 

) 1-16 with 1 ton. 

A wrought iron bar 1 in. X 1 in. X 1 ft. in. long i deflects 1-8 " 1 J " 

> 2 1-2 '' 2i ^' 

The above rule gives the weight that will break the beam if put on the 
middle. If the weight is laid equally all over, it would require double 
the weight to break it. 

A beam should not be loaded with more than 1-3 of the breaking weight 
in any case, and as a general rule not with more than 1-4, for purposes o( 
machinery not with more than 1-6 to 1-10 depending on circumstances. 

Tojind the proper size for any given purpose. 

Rectangular, 

Weight X Length ft. « . /. ^ i- 

rnr"! — H X 3 or 4 or 6, &c. accordmg to circumstances =s 

B d2 ins. 

Round. 

W Weight X Length, ft, ^ „ ;; ~ T ' \ ; 

V ^— — p — ^^ — — - X 3 or 4 or 6, &c. accordmg to circumstances 

c= diam. ins. 



CAST IRON WITH FEATHERS OR FLANGES I TO FIND THEIE STRENGTIT. 

Sec. area, bottom flange ins. X depth ins. _ „ , . • . , . 

i 7—. — T. X 2 = Breaking weight, tons 

Length m teet. & t> ^ 

If the metal exceeds 1 inch in thickness deduct l-8th. 

If above 2 inches deduct l-4th. 

This description of beam is of the strongest form, when the sectional area 
of the bottom flange is six times that of the top flange. 

In designing this description of beam, the bottom flange may be from 1-2 
tc I 1-2 the depth of beam; the top flange from 1-4 to 1-3 the width of 
<ho bottom one, and 2-3 to 1-2 the thickness of it ; the feather being made 
at the top a httio thicker than the top flange, increasing to the bottom to 
nearly the thickness of the bottom flange ; in this way avoidmg any sud- 
den variation in the thickness and saving weight ; many engineers, however, 
prefer keeping the same thickness throughout in every part. The verti- 
cal brackets for sliflening the girder should not be made straight. bu»; hol- 
lowed out something like the sketch, as thus they are much less liable to 
crack, and all ilie corners should be well filled in. 

la most cases it is necessary that the beam should be gf uniform 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



151 



depth throughout; it will, however, save weight, without diminishiiig the 
strength of the beam, if the width of the boitoin flange be reduced very 
considerably towards the ends ; 1-2 of the width of the middle being quite 
sufficient; care being taken to maintain a sufficient surface for bearing, if 
the beam has to be carried on a wall, 




Fig. 2. 



fe 



W 

15^ 



WROUGHT IRON BEAMS. 

Girders. — The sketch shows a very strong form for this description of 
girder, when rolled solid. The top 

flange being condensed and square is i ^^ J^ 

in a good form to resist compression ; ^x^.xv.>..v...vx.v^^^^^^^^ or^* 

the bottom flange has a wider surface |[ H^^ ,^ 

to rest on, and the middle rib is light ; 

an experimental beam of this description 8 ins. deep and 11 feet long re- 
quiring 5 tons to break it. 

'J'iie top flange should have a sectional area 1 1-2 times that of the bottom. 

When thus proportioned : 
Sec. area top flange, ins. X depth ins.. ^ r. . • . , • 
L^Vfea: ^ ^ "= Breakmg weight m tons. 

This is an inferior shape. Fig. 4. 

In such a beam the top flange should have an area ^^^^^^^^M 
1 3-4 that of the bottom flange. i 



I flange. 
When thus proportioned : 
Sec. area top flange ins. x depth ins. ^ ^^ , . 

— L^i^hl^. X ^ = ^^^^^'"^ 

weight, tons. 

Beams of the above forms, made of plates and of L iron, are of equal 
strength with the above; care being taken to make the bottom flange of 
double plates, with joint plates over the butts, allowing a little extra area 
in the bottom to compensate for the rivet holes, though this is not necessary 
if the^' are rivetted up by stean^. 



132 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



Ftg,5. 



WROUGHT IRON BEAMS. 

Hollow Girders. — The sketch represents the form 
for hollow girders combining the g"reatest strength 
with the least weight, the I jp being in the best form 
for resisting compression. 

The proportion of the bottom sectional area to that 
of the top should be as 11 to 12, or 4-5 5 and the sides 
should be well stiffened with angle iron, to keep them 
from buckling -, the sectional area of the top and bot- 
tom may be reduced at the extremities to 1-3 of the 
area at the middle, without diminishing the strength of 
the beam. 

When thus proportioned : 
Section, area top, ins, X depth ins. , 

Length feet, 
weight, tons. 

An experimental beam of this form, 75 feet long between supports, 4 feet 
6 inches deep, with 6 cells at the top, about 6 inches square each, with a 
sectional area 24 sq. ins., the sides stiffened with 1 1-2 L irons, 2 feet apart, 
required 86 tons to break it. 
Fig. 6. 

In the plain hollow girder the top should have a sectioiial 
area I 3-4 that of the b.ottom. 



X 5 = Breaking 



Thus proportioned : 

Section, area top, i ns. X depth ins. 

Length feet, 
tons. 



X 4 = Breaking weight 



Tojind the strength of a round girder. 

Sec. area, ins. X dia. ins. t. , . 

=^-^ — . ^ ^ = Breakm<T weight, tons. 

Length feet. ° ^ ' 

Tojind the strength of any beam. 

If the top flange is the weakest, find the compressive breaking strain in 
tons per square inch due to its shape, thickness, and length. (See Columns.) 

If the bottom is the weakest, find the tensional breaking strain of the 
material in tons per square inch. 

Then, 

^2pp JirPR. 11m Or 

weakest flan<^e ^ breaking strain, tons per m. X depth of beam ft. X 4 

Length between supports, feet. 
mz Breaking weight, tons. 

This rule will be found useful, either to confirm the results obtained from 
the previous rules, or to find the strength of any beams of irregular shape 
not included in them. 

The mode of ascertaining the compression find tension on the top and 
bottom flanges of beams is sufficiently simple. 

Take the case of a beam, 20 feet long, 2 feet deep, with a weight of 20 
loos on the middle 3 the forc^^^ounterac ting this weight will be 10 tons on 



SOLID COLUMNS. 



153 



= Strain on top and bottom flanges, tons. 



each end; the force of compression at ,the top in the middle of the beam, 
and that of tension at the bottom, taking the central weight as the fulcrum, 
will be just in proportion to the leverage 5 in this case, as 10 to 2, or 5 to I. 
The force of 10 tons applied to the end will thus result in a force of 50 tons 
of compression and tension on the flanges in the middle of the beam. Or 
in a simple form, 
Weight, tons X length, feet 
Depth, feet X 4 

The ultimate compressive strength of boiler plate iron may be taken at 
16 tons per ^.quare inch, the tensile strength at 20 tons per square inch; and 
this is the reason why, in all wrought iron beams, the top requires to be the 
strongest. 

But as in cast iron the compressive strength is about 48 tons, while the 
tensile strength is only about 7 tons per square inch, the bottom flange in 
cast iron girders requires to be much the strongest. 

The fullest information on this subject, and the experiments in detail, 
will be found in Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson's experiments on the strength of 
cast iron beams, and in Mr. Edwin Clark's work on the Britannia and Con- 
way tubular bridges. 



SOLID COLUMNS. 

Fail by crushing with length under ---------5 diameters. 

Principally by crushing from ----5 to 15 *' 

Partly by crushing, partly by bending, from - - - 15 to "25 *' 
Altogether by bending above ----------25 '* 

Cast iron of average quality is crushed with - - 49 tons per square inch. 

Wrought iron of average quality is crushed with 16 " " " 

Wrought iron is permanently injured with - - - 12 '' " " 

Oak wrought is crushed with ------- 4 " " *< 

Deal wrought is crushed with ------- 2 " " *' 

The comparative strength of different columns, of different lengths, will 
be seen very clearly from the following table derived from experiments by 
Mr. Hodorkinson: — 



Wrought 


Iron Bars. 


Proportion of Length 
to Thickness. 


Gave way with 


Square. 


Length. 






ins. 


ft. ins. 




IX 1 


74 


7itol 


21-7 tons per sq. inch 


(( 


1 3 


15 tol 


154 


(( 


2 6 


30 to 1 


113 •« 


C( 


5 


60 tol 


7-5 


•• 


7 6 


90 to 1 


43 ** 


4X4 


5 


120 to 1 


25 ** 


« 


7 6 


180 tol 


1- " 



To find the strength of any wrought iron column with square ends. 

Area of column sq. inches X tons per inch corresponding to proportion ot 
length; as per table above = Breaking weight, tons. 



IM 



STRENGTH OF COLUMNS. 



If the ends are rounded, divide the final result by 3 to find the bretvking 
weight. 

In columns of oblong" section, the narrowest side must always be taken in 
calculating the proportion of height to width. 

To find the strength of round columns exceeding 25 diameters in lengtJu 
Mr. Hodgkinson's rule. 

(Diameter ins \^'° 

—Tj- TvT fi \i7 • X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, tons. 



Wrought iron 
Cast iron 
Dantzic oak 
Red deal - 



Square Ends. 


Rounded or Moveable 
Ends. 




77 


26 




44 


15 




4-5 


1 7 




3-3 


1-2 



A column should not be loaded with more than 1-3 of the breaking weight 
in any case, and as a general rule, not with more than 1-4 j for purposes of 
machinery not with more than 1-6 to 1-10, according to circumstances. 

Tables of Powers for the Diameters and Lengths of Columns, 



Diarneler. 


3 6 Power. 


Diameter. 


3 Power. 


1 in. 


1- 


Tin. 


11024 


i 


2-23 


i 


1251- 


i 


4-3 


i 


1413-3 


1 


75 


i 


1590-3 


2 


121 


8 


1782-9 


1 1 


18-5 


^ 


1991-7 


* 


27- 


^ 


2217-7 


1 


38-16 


i 


2461-7 


3 


52 2 


9 


2724-4 


1 


69-63 


i 


3006-85 


t i 


90-9 


h 


3309-8 


J 


116-55 


1 


3634-3 


4 


147- 


10 


398107 


i 


1S2-9 


^ 


4351 2 


h 


22468 


^ 


4745-5 


3 


272-96 


1 


5165- 


5 


328-3 


11 


5610 7 


^ 


391-36 


i 


6083-4 


A 


462-71 


h 


65S4-3 


1 


543-01 


i. 


7114-4 


6 


63291 


12 


7674-5 


i 


733- 11 






1 


844 28 






« 


96715 







Length. 


1-7 Power. 


1 


1- 


2 


325 


3 


6-47 


4 


10-556 


5 


15-426 


6 


21-031 


7 


27-332 


8 


34-297 


9 


41-9 


10 


50119 


11 


58-934 


12 


68-329 


13 


78-289 


14 


88-8 


15 


99-85 


16 


111-43 


17 


123-53 


18 


13613 


19 


149-24 


20 


162-84 


21 


176-92 


22 


191--18 


23 


206-51 


24 


222 



HOLLOW COLUMNS. 



155 



HOLLOW COLUMNS. 

Hollow columns fail principally by crushing, provided the lengtli does 
not exceed 25 diameters j indeed, the length does not appear to affect the 
Btrengih much till it exceeds 50 diameters. 

The comparative strength of different forms and of different thicknesses 
will appear so distinctly from the experiments below, made by Mr. Hocig- 
kinson. that no difficulty will be found in ascertaining the strength due to 
any size or form of column that may be required. 

Square Columns of Plate Iron Rivetted 



Columns 10 ft. in. long. 



Size. 


Thick- 




ness. 


4 in. X 4 in. 


•03 


(( 


•06 


<( 


•1 


(< 


•2 


8 in. X 8 in. 


•06 


(( 


•14 


u 


•22 


(( 


•25 



Proportion of 
Thickness to Width. 






Proportion of 



Break'g weighl 



Length 


Tons per sq. in. 


to Width. 


ofsectiou. 


30 to 1 


4^9 


t( 


8-6 


(i 


10^ 


(( 


12^ 


15tol 


6- 


(( 


9^ 


(( 


n-5 


ii 


12- 



Column Sfeet inches long. 



18 X 18 


•5 


■^fj practically 


5-4 to 1 


13^6 


Column 10 feet inches long, with Cells. 


8 in. X 8 in. 


•06 


^<g- of width of cells 


15 to 1 


8-6 



To find the strength of any Hollow Wrought Iron Column, 



Sec. area, sq. ins. X 



Tons per inch, corresponding to the proportions of ^ 



Breaking weight, tons. 



lengtli and thickness to width as per tables 



Columns of Oblong Section. 

The strength of these may be ascertained by the same rule as that of 
square columns. The smallest width being taken in calculating the pro» 
portion of height to width, while the longest side must be taken into consid- 
eration in calculating the proportion of thickness to width. 







Column 10 feet inches long. 




Size. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Proportion of 

Thickness to 

greatest W^idth. 


Proportion of 

Length to least 

Widih. 


Actual Breaking 
W^eight Tons per 
sq. in. of Sectiun. 


8 in. X 4 in. 


•06 


T^ilT 


30 to 1 


6^78 



156 



STRENGTH OF COLUMNS.— CRANE. — PUMP. 



Round Columns of Plate Iron Rivetted. 





Columns 10/< 


. m. Ions. 




Same Columns 
Reduced in Length, 


1 




Proportion 


Proportion 
o( length io 
Diameter. 


Breaking 


Bre king Weights. 


Dia- T 


hick- 
less. 


of thick- 

nessto 

Diameter. 


Weight. 
Tons per 
sq. inch. 


Tons per square inch. 




5 ft in. long. 


2 ft. 6 in. long. 


H 


■1 


■xH 


80 to 1 


6-5 


13-9 


5-8 


2 


1 


sV 


60tol 


10-35 


14-8 


16-5 


^ 


1 


2*^ 


48tol 


13-3 


156 


16-3 


2* 


24 


T*! 


48tol 


96 


156 


16- 


2* 


21 


tV 


48tol 


9-9 


13- 


17- 


3 • 


15 


^V 


40tol 


12-36 


13- 


16-5 


4 • 


15 


?v 


30tol 


12-34 


13- 




6 • 


1 


^s 


20 to 1 


15- 


17- 


18'6 


6 


13 


fV 


20tol 


18-6 







It would seem from this that a thickness of 1-48, or 1-4 inch in thickuesB 
for every foot in diameter is a go )d proportion for this kind of column. 

It will be seen from these experiments, that it is the proportion of thick- 
ness to the width of cell which regulates the strength within certain limits 
of height. 

And that a thickness of 1-30 or 1-8 inch for every 4 inches in width will 
give the highest result practicable for square columns. 



CRANE. 

The strains on the principal parts can be ascertained with great ease in 
the following manner— the strength being proportioned accordingly. 

To find the strain on the post, 

Weiffht suspended, tons X Projection, feet r. • . n . 

°,T • ■ : L' : — r ^3— ? = Strain on top of post, tons. 

Height oi post above ground, feet ^ ^ ' 

The post can then be calculated as a beam, twice as long as this height 
from ground; with twice the weight on the middle. [iSee Beams,'] 



COLD WATER PUMP. 

Usually 1-4 of cylinder diameter when the stroke is 1-2 that of piston. 
1-3 " " 1-4 ** 

Tof.nd the proper size, under any circumstances, capable of supplying twice 
the quantity ordinarily used for injection. 

Cub. ft. water per hour used in cylinder in form of steam , ^ 

— ■ oi — . ~ 7. —. -. — — = Area of DumD 

Stroke of pump, ft. X strokes per minute • 

in square feet. 



VELOCITY OF FANS. 



167 



FAN. 

Case should be strong and heavy. Bearings long. 

Blades and arms as light and well balanced as possible. 

Good proportions — 

Inlet = 4 diameter of fan, 

Blades = 4 diameter of fan each way, 

Outlet = area of blades. 

The area of tuyeres is most advantageous when made 
area of blades 

density of blast, oz. per sq. inch. 
and it should not exceed double this size. 



VELOCITY OP FANS. 

The best Velocity of Circumference for different Densitie$» 



Velocity of Circumference. 


Density of Blast. 


Feet per Second. 


Oz. per inch. 


170 


3 


180 


4 


195 


5 


205 


6 


215 


7 



A speed of 180 to 200 feet per second, giving a density of 4 or 5 
8Z., is very suitable for smithy tires. 

250 to 300 feet per second is a proper speed for cupolas. 

A fan 4 feet inch diameter, blade 1 foot inch square, will sup- 
ply 40 fires with IJ tuyeres at a density of 4 oz. 

To find the Horse Power required for anyfan^ 

Let D = density of blast in oz. per inch. 

A = area of discharge at tuyeres in square inches. 
V = velocity of circumference in feet per second. 

V ID ^ A 

Then ^^^^^ = Effective Horse Power required, 

963 

To find the density to he attained with any given fan. 

Let D = diameter of fan in feet. 

,8 



\^/ = Density of I 



Then V^/ = Density of blast in oz. per inch. 
120 X d. 
Or the density may be found by comparison with the following 

taoie : — 

14 



158 



FRICTION. — CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 



Velocity of Circumference. 
Feet per Second. 


Area of Nozzles. 


Density of Blait 
Oz. per inch. 


150 


Twice 


area of blades 




1 


150 


Equal 


ditto 




2 


150 


12 


ditto 




3 


170 


1-4 


ditto 




4 


200 


12 


ditto 




4 


200 


1-6 


ditto 




S 


220 


1-3 


ditto 




6 



To find the quantity of air that ivill be delivered by any Fan, the 
density being known. 

Total area nozzles, sq. ft. X velocity, ft. per minute corresponding 
to density (as per table) = Air delivered, cubic ft. per minute. 



Density. 


Velocity. 


Density. 


Velocity. 


Oz. per Sq. Inch. 


Feet per Minute. 


Lbs. per Sq. Inch. 


Feet per Minute, 


1 


5,000 


1 


20,000 


2 


7,000 


H 


24,500 


3 


8,600 


2 


28,300 


4 


10,000 


2i 


31,600 


5 


11,000 


3 


44,640 


6 


12,250 


4 


40,000 


7 


13,200 


6 


49,000 


8 


14,150 


8 


56-600 


9 


15,000 


10 


63,200 


10 


15 800 


12 


69,280 


11 


16,500 


15 


78,000 


12 


17,300 


20 


89,400 



FRICTION. 
From Mr, Rennie^s Experiments. 



The friction of metal on metal, without unguents, 
May be taken at 1-6 of the weight up to 40 lbs. per sq. in. 

«« 100 

♦* 800 " 

*< 500 «« 

1 10 of the weight. 
1-13 

800 lbs. per inch forces out the oil. 
Fiiction of journals under ordinary circumstances 1-30 of weight. 
*' well oiled, sometimes only 1-60 " 



15 

Brass on cast iron 1-4 *' 
Wrought on cast iron 1-3 ** 
U ith tallow at 
*' olive oil at 



CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 
(Revolutions per min.)^ X dia. in ft. X weight 



ta terms of weight. 



5870 



f Centrifugal forct 



FEDESTAL, BRACKET. — TEMPERING. 159 

PEDESTAL— BRACKET. 

PEDESTAL. 

Good proportions. 
Thickness of cover '4 of diameter of bearing. 

*« of sole plate -3 '' *« 

Diameter of bolts -25 " " if 2. 

«« *< as " " if there are 4. 

Distance between bolts twice diameter of bearing. 

BRACKET. 

Solid. Metdl round brass equal to 1-2 diameter of bearing. 

General thickness web, &c. equal to 1-4 diameter of bearing. 
With feathers Width at lightest equal to diameter of bearing. 
Thickness equal to 1-6 ** ** 



Straw - 


- 450-^ 


Darker straw - 


. 470"=' 


Yellow - 


- 490=^ 


Brown yellow 


- 500=' 



TEMPERING. 

The article after being completed, is hardened by being heated 

gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold water; it is then 

tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, either over a ti;:?, 

or on a piece of heated metal till of the color corresponding to ma 

purpose for which it is required, as per table below, when it is again 

plunged into water. 

Corresponding Temperature. 

A very pale straw . 430^^ Lancets i 

Razors 

Penknives ) All kinds of wood tools 

Scissors i Screw taps. 

) Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, 

Slightly tinged purple 520^ > Saws. 

Purple - - - 530 "^ ) All kinds of percussive tools. 

Dark purpla - - ^oO^ I o,^,:ry^c 
r»i ^ '^ c-rn^ } springs. 

Blue - ' - 570"^ ) 

Dark blue - - 600^ Soft for saws. 

To Temper by the Thermometer, 

Put the articles to be tempered into a vessel containing a sufficient 
quantity to cover them, of Oil or Tallow; Sand; or a mixture of 8 
parts bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, the whole to be brought up to. 
And kept up at the he^t corresponding to the hardness required, by 
means of a suitable thermometer, till heated equally throughout; the 
articles are then withdrawn and plunged into cold water. 

If no thermometer is available, it may be observed that oil or tallow 
begins to smoke at 430"' or straw color, and that it takes fire on a light 
being presented, and goes out when the light is withdrawn, at 570"^ 
or blue. 

CASE HARDENING. 

Put the articles requiring to be hardened, after being finished but 
notpoiished, into an iron box in layers with animal carbon, that is, 



160 HEAT. — SOLDERING. — BORING AND TURNING. 

horns, hoofs, skins, or leather, partly burned so as to be capable of 
being reduced to powder, taking care that every part of the iron ia 
completely surrounded ; make the box tight with a lute of sand and 
clay in equal parts, put the whole into the fire, and keep it at a light 
red heat for half an hour to two hours, according to the depth of har- 
dened surface required, then empty the contents of the box into 
water, care being taken that any articles liable to buckle be put in 
separately and carefully, end in first. 

Cast iron may be case hardened as follows : — 

Bring to a red heat, and roll it in a mixture of powdered pnissiate 
of potash, saltpetre and sal-ammoniac in equal parts, then plunge it 
into a bath containing 2 oz. prussiate of potash, and 4 oz. sal-ammo- 
niac per gallon of water. 



HEAT. 

EFFECTS OP HEAT AT CERTAIN TEMPERATURES. — GrIEE. 

Tin and Bismuth, equal parts, melt at 283 degrees, Fahrenheit ; 
tin melts at 442 ; polished steel acquires straw color at 460 ; bismuth 
melts at 476; sulphur burns at 560; oil of turpentine boils at 560; 
polished steel acquires deep blue color at 580 ; lead melts at 594 ; lin- 
seed oil boils at 600; quicksilver boils at 660 ; zinc melts at 700 ; iron, 
bright red in the dark at 752 ; iron, red-hot in twilight at 884; red 
heat fully visible in daylight at 1077; brass melts at 3807 ; copper 
melts at 4587 ; silver melts at 4717 ; gold melts at 5237 ; welding heat 
of iron, from 12777 ; welding heat of iron to 13427 ; greatest heat of 
smith's forge 17327; cast iron begins to melt at 17977; cast iron 
thoroughly melted at 20577. 



SOLDERING. 

The solder for joints require? to be of some metal more fusible than 
that of the substances to be joined. 

For Copper, usual solder 6 to 8 parts brass to 1 of zinc ; 1 of tin 
sometimes added. 

A still stronger solder, 3 parts brass, 1 of zinc. 

To prepare this solder. — Melt the brass in a crucible, when 
melted add in the einc, and cover over for 2 or 3 minutes till the 
combination is effected, then pour it out, over a bundle of twigs, into 
a vessel of water, or into a mould composed of a number of little 
channels, so that the solder may be in long strips convenient for use. 

Brass filings alone will answer very well. 

To braze with this solder. — Scrape the surfaces perfectly clean, 
and secure the flange or joint carefully ; cover the surfaces tc be 
brazed with borax powder moistened; apply the solder, and melt it 
in with the flame of a clear coke fire from a smith's hearth ; pai'tic* 
ular care being taken not to burn the copper. 



BOKING AND TURNING. — BRASS CASTINGS. 



161 



Iron and brass are soldered with spelter, which is brass and zinc in 
equal parts; the process being performed in a manner similar to the 
above. For ironwork, however, sometimes rather differently; the 
articles are fixed in their po.^1 ion, and the solder applied, a covering 
ot loam is then put over all to exclude the air the work thus prepared 
is then put into the tire a sufficient time to melt the solder in. 



BORING AND TURNING. 

The best speed for boring cast iron is about 7| feet per minute- 
For drilling about 10 or 11 feet per minute is a good speed for the 

circumference of the tool. For a 1 inch drill 40 revolutions =r 11 

feet per minute, other sizes in proportion 

For turning, the proper speed for the circumference is about 15 

feet per minute. 

BRASS. 

COMPOSITIONS OP BRASS. 



Watch-makers brass • . . . . 

German brass . 

Yellow brass 

Speculum metal 

Bell metal 

Light castings and small bearings . 
Ditto a little harder . . 

Heavy castings 

Gun metal 



Copper. 


Tin. 


1 part 


— 


1 " 





2 *' 





2 *' 


1 part 


3 " 




4 " 




4 « 




6 to 7 




9 " 





Zinc. 



2 parts 
1 " 
1 " 



The addition of a little lead makes the metal more easily wrought, 
and is advantageous when the work is not intended for exposure to 
heat. 



BRASS CASTING. 

As it is often useful to engineers, especially abroad, to be able to 
cast brass, a slight description of the process may not be out of place. 

The ordinary furnace used is of very simple construction. 

After lighting the fire, put the pot intended for use bottom upwards 
over it, so as to warm gradually through. As soon as the fire is 
burned well through, put the pot into its place, resting the bottom on 
a fire brick to keep it off the bars, and filling round with lumps ot 
coke to steady it; then put in the copper, either blocks cut up inlo 
pieces of convenient size, or if this is not to be had, sheet copper 
doubled up ; as the metal sinks down add more copper or old brass 
till the pot is neaily full of melted metal; now add the tin, and when 
this is melted and mixed, put in a piece or two of zinc; ii" this begiins 
to tlare add the rest of the zinc in, stir it well in, lift the pot off at 



162 BRASS CASTINGS. — WEIGHT OF ROPE. 

ence, skim the rubbish off the top, and pour into the mould. If, 
however, it does not flare up, put a little coal on to excite the f^re, 
and cover over till it comes to a proper heat. As soon as the zinc 
begins to flare, add in the rest, and take the pot off the fire. If old 
brass alone is melted down no tin is required, but a small quantity of 
zinc. If part copper and part brass, ^dd tin and zinc in proportion to 
the new copper, with a little extra zinc for the brass. 

As soon as the boxes are run, it is the usual custom to open them 
at once, and to sprinkle the castings with water from the rose of a 
watering can, this has the effect of making them softer than they 
would otherwise be; the boxes are then emptied, and fresh moulds 
made while fresh metal is being melted. 

When the casting is completed, draw the bearer forward, and let 
the bars all drop, so that the furnace can be effectually cleared from 
the clinkers, and put the pot among the ashes to cool gradually. 

The moulding boxes may be of hard wood, well secured at the 
corners, either by dovetailing or by strong nails and iron corner 
plates, with guides to keep the boxes fair with one another. A few 
cross bars in the top box help to carry the sand. 

Fresh green sand, the same as used for iron founding, mixed with 
a small .uantity ol coal dust, about one-twelfth part, should be sifted 
over the patterns on all sides to the thickness of about an inch, the 
box then tilled up with old sand, and properly rammed up, and well 
pricked to let the air and gas escape, then remove the patterns, and 
dust over the mould with a little charcoal powder from a bag, or with 
a little flour, cover over the box again, and the mould is ready for 
pouring. 

For long articles, spindles, bars, &c., make a good airhole at the 
opposite end from w^here the metal is poured, incline the box slightly, 
and pour the metal at the lower end ; for flat, thin and straggling ar- 
ticles it is necessary to have two or more pouring holes, and to fill 
them all at the same time. 

I'he pots generally used are the Stourbridge clay pots, and black 
lead pots, both kinds being made of various sizes up to 60 lbs.; the 
former are less durable, but much cheaper than the latter, they re- 
quire to be carefully hardened by gradual expo-ure to the fire. 

Clay pots are made of 2 parts raw Stourbridge clay to 1 of gas coke 
pulverized; well mixed up together with water, dried gently, and 
slightly baked in a kiln. 

Black lead pots of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of fireclay, mixed with 
water, baked slightly in a kiln, but not completely until required for 
use. 

The pots are made on a wood mould, the shape and size of the in- 
fide ot the pot, the clay being plastered round it to the thicknesi 
desired. 



ROPE. 
To find the breaking Weight of an ordinary Tarred Hemp Rope 
(Circumference, ins.)' -5- 5 = Breaking weight, tons. 
A rope should not be loaded with more than 1-3 its brefiking weight 



WEIGHT OF ROPE. — WEIGHT OF CASTINGS. 



163 



To find Weight of Rope or Tarred Cordage, 
(Circumference ins.)^ X Length, ft. -^ 24 = Weight, lbs. 
Or, 
(Circumference ins.)^ -5- 4 ^ Weight, lbs. per fathom. 

To find Weight of Tarred Hawser or Manilla Rope, 
(Circumference iris.)^ -j- 5 = Weight, lbs. per fathom. 
To find Weight of Hawser- Laid Manilla, 
(Circumference ins.)^ -5- 6 = Weight, lbs. per fathom. 



WEIGHT. 
To find the Weight of any Casting, 

Width m J ins. X Thickness in ^ ins., or vice versa, -5- 10 X 
Length, ft. = Wei2;ht, lbs. cast iron. 

For instance ; to find the weight of a casting 3| ins. X 1^ ins X 
2 ft. 6 ins. lono;- 

13 X 9 -=- 10 == 11-7 X 2-5 = 29-25 lbs. 

This rule is very useful, and can easily be remembered in the fol- 
lowing form. 

Width in ^ ins. X Thickness in J ins. or vice versa, cut offl figure 
for decimal, the result is lbs. per foot of length. 

For wrought iron add l-20th to the result; for lead add 1-2; tor 
brass add l-7th; for copper add l-5th. 

To find the Weight from the Areas, 
Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. X 3 1-7 = Weight, lbs. cast iron. 
Multiplier for Cast iron 3-156 or 3 1-7. 

" Wrought iron 3 312 or 3 1-3. 

'* Lead 4-854 

'• Brass 3 644 

" Copper 3-87 

Or, Area, sq. ins. X 10 = lbs. per yard for wrought iron. 
To find the Weight in cwts. 
Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. -5- 31-9 = Weight, cwts. cast iron. 
For wrought iron, divide by 33.6. 



WEIGHT OF BOILEE PLATES. 



Thickness, ini. 

Weight, lbs. per 
sq. ft. 



tV 


1 


t\ 


i 


■h 


f 


25 


5 


7-5 


10 


12-5 


15 



17-5 2025 



* i 



30 



1 

40 



For cast iron deduct l-20th. 



164 



CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTIOK. 



To find Weight of Boiler Plates in cwti. 
Area sq. ft. 



No. corresponding to thickness 
in table below. 



= Weight, cwts. 



Thickness. 


Divisor. 


Thickness. 


Divisor. 


Thickness. 


DivUor, 


In. 




In. 




In. 




i 


22-4 


t 


7-5 


1 


4-48 


A 


15- 


tV 


6-3 


i 


373 


i 


11-2 


i 


5-G 


i 


3-2 


^^ 


9- 


■^^ 


5- 


1 


2-8 



CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 

In mechanics, circular motion is transmitted by means of wheels, 
drums, or pulleys; and accordingly as the driving and driven are oj 
equal or unequal diameters, so are equal or unequal velocities pro- 
duced. Hence the principle on which the following rules are founded. 

1. When time is not taken into Account, 

Rule. — Divide the greater diameter, or number of teeth, by the 
lesser diameter or number of teeth ; and the quotient is the number 
of revolutions the lesser will make, for one of the greater. 

Example. — How many revolutions will a pinion of 20 teeth make, 
for 1 of a wheel with 125 ? 

125 -7- 20 = 6.25 or 6^ revolutions. 

To find the number of revolutions of the last, to one of the firsts 
in a train of wheels and pinions. 

Rule. — Divide the product of all the teeth in the driving by the 
product of all the teelh in the driven ; and the quotient equal the 
ratio of velocity required. 

Example 1. — Reqaired the ratio of velocity of the last, to 1 of 
Ike first, in the followinsf train of wheels and pinions; viz., pinions 
driving — the first of which contains 10 teeth, the second 15, and 
third 18. Wheels driven first, 15 teeth, second, 25, and third, 32. 

10 X 15 X 18 

— ; -r = -225 of a revolution the wheel will make to one of the 

15 X 2d X 32 

pinion. 

Example 2. — A wheel of 42 teeth givino motion to one of 12, on 
which shaft is a pulley of 21 inches diameter driving one of 6 ; required 
the number of revolutions of the last pulley to one of the first wheel. 

42 X 21 

— — =r 12.25 or 12i revolutions. 

12 X 6 ^ 

Note. — Where increase or decrease of velocity is required to be communl- 
taled by wheel-work, it has been demonstrated thai the number of teeihon each 
pinion should not be les* than I to G of its v« Uecl, unless there be some o^Uer \va* 
poriant reason for a higher ratio. 



CONtlNirotrs CIEC^LAR MOtlON. l65 



2. When Time must be regarded. 

Role. — Multiply the diameter or number of teeth in the driver, 
by its velocity in any given time, and divide the product by the re- 
quired velocity of" the driven; the quotient equal the number of teeth 
or diameter of the driven, to produce the velocity required. 

Example 1. — If a wheel, containing 84 teeth, makes 20 revolu- 
tions per minute, how many must another contain, to work in contact, 
and make 60 revolutions in the same time ? 

8i X 20-^ 60 = 28 teeth. 

Example 2. —From a shaft making 45 revolutions per minute, 
and with a pinion 9 inches di.uneter at the pitch line, I wish to trans- 
mit motion at 15 revolutions per minute; what, at the pitch line, must 
be the diameter of the wheel ? 

45 X 9 -7- 15 = 27 inches. 

Example 3. — Required the diameter of a pulley to make 16 rev* 
olutions in the same time as one of 24 inches making 36. 
24 X 36 -T- 16 = 54 inches. 

The distance between the centres and velocities of two wheels 
being given, to find their proper diameters. 

Rule. — Divide the greatest velocity by the least; the quotient is 
the ratio of diameter the wheels must bear to each other. 

Hence, divide the distance between the centres by the ratio -(- 1 ; 
the quotient equal the radius of the smaller wheel; and subtract the 
radius thus obtained from the distance between the centres; the re- 
mainder equal the radius of the other. 

Example. — The distance of two shafts from centre to centre is 
.50 inches, and the velocity of the one 25 revolutions per minute, the 
other is to make 80 in the same time ; the proper diameters of the 
wheels at the pitch lines are required. 

80 -i- 25 = 3.2, ratio of velocity, and 50 -r- 3.2 -f- 1 = U.9 the radius of 
the smaller wheel; then 50 — 11.9 = 38.1, radius of larger; their diame- 
ters are 11.9 X 2 = 23.8 and 38.1 X 2 = 76.2 inches. 

To obtain or diminish an accumulated velocity by means of wheels, 
pinions, or wheels, pinions, and pulleys, it is necessary that a propor- 
tional ratio of velocity should exist, and which is thus attained: mul- 
tiply the e^iven and required velocities together; and the square root 
of the product is the mean or proportionate velocity. 

Example. — Let the given velocity of a wheel containing 54 teeth 
equal 16 revolutions per minute, and the given diameter of an inter- 
mediate pulley equal 25 inches, to obtain a velocity of 81 revolutions 
in a machine; required the number of teeth in the intermediaio 
wheel and diameter of the last pulley. 



^81 X 16 = 36 mean velocitv. 

64 X 16 -f- 36 = 2t teeth and 25 X 36 -*- 81 = 11.1 inches, diam. of pulley. 



166 CdNflNtJOirs dlitCULAR MOflOlf. 

To determine the proportion of wheels for screw-cutting by d 
Lathe. 

In a lathe properly adapted, screws to any degree of pitch, or 
number of threads in a given length, may be cut by moans of a lead- 
ing screw of any given pitch, accompanied with change wheels and 
pinions; coarse pitches being effected generally by means of one 
wheel and one pinion with a carrier, or intermediate wheel, which 
cause no variation or change of motion to take place. Hence the 
following 

Rule.— Divide the number of threads in a given length of the 
screw which is to be cut, by the number of threads in the same 
length of the leading screw attached to the lathe ; and the quotient 
is the ratio that the wheel on the end of the screw must bear to that 
on the end of the lathe spindle. 

Example. — Let it be required to cut a screw with 5 threads in 
an inch, the leading screw being of J inch pitch, or containing 2 
threads in an inch ; vyhat must be the ratio of wheels applied? 

6 -7- 2 = 2.5; the ratio they must bear to each other. 
Then suppose a pinion of 40 teeth be fixed upon for the spindle, — 
40 X 2.5 = 100 teeth for the wheel on the end of the screw. 

But screws of a greater degree of fineness than about 8 threads in 
an inch are more conveniently cut by an additional wheel and pinion, 
because of the proper degree of velocity being more effectively at- 
tained ; and these, on account of revolving upon a stud, are commonly 
designated the stud-wheels, or stud-wheel and pinion ; but the mode 
of calculation and ratio of screw are the same as in the preceding 
rule. Hence, all that is further necessary is to fix upon any 3 
wheels at pleasure, as those for the spindle and stud-wheels; then 
multiply the number of teeth in the spindle-wheel by the ratio of the 
screw, and by the number of teeth in that wheel or pinion which is 
in contact with the wheel on the end of the screw ; divide the product 
by the stud-wheel in contact with the spindle-wheel ; and the quotient 
is the number of teeth required in the wheel on the end of the lead- 
ing screw. 

Example.- Suppose a screw is required to be cut containing 25 
threads in an inch, and the leading screw, as before, having two 
threads in an inch, and that a wheel of 60 teeth is fixed upon for the 
end of the spindle, 20 tor the pinion in contact with the screw-wheel, 
and 100 for that in contact with the wheel on the end of the spindle; 
required the number of teeth in the wheel for the end of the leading 
screw. 

60 X 12.5 X 20 
25 -*- 2 = 12.5, and -^ = 150 teeth. 

Or suppose the spindle and screw-wheels to be those fixed upon, 
%lso any one of the stud-wheels, to find the number of teeth in the 
otlier. 

60 X 12.5 ^^ ^ 60 X 12.5 X 20 ,^^ ^ ^ 

r^ 77TT = 20 teeth, or rrr = 100 teeth. 

160 X lOD ' loO 



eONtiNttOtJS CIRCXiLAtt MOTION. 



167 



Table of Change Wheels for Screw- cutting ; the leading Screu 
being i inch pitch, or containing 2 threads in an inch. 





Numb, of 




Number of 




Number of 


fl 


teeth in 




teeth in 




teeth in 


•> 








^Ij 


♦-"v 






^'o ^-: i 




ed 






a 




o 3i 


O V 




a 




^ % " ?^ 




1^ 

%1 


-2 

'a, 




ii 




e1 
H 




bo 

1^ 


V 

as 

1-5= 


11 


O i : C T 


£ 


5 w 


rt-=i 


flj -^ 


3 o 


si -^ 








p y 




a; A 


2;.s 


J^ 


j^ 


ZS 


J^ 


^■? 


£> 


^^ 


Z.2 


.^|..- ..-. 


i:^?^ P.^ 1 


J^ 


1 


80 


40 


8i 


40 


55 


20 


60 


19 


50 


95 20 ! 


100 


U 


80 


50 


8^ 


90 


85 


20 


90 


194 


80 


120 


20 


130 


14 


80 


60 


81 


60 


70 


20 


75 


20 


60 


100 


20 


120 


li 


80 


70 


94 


90 


90 


20 


95 


20^ 


40 


90 


20 


90 


2 


80 


90 


91 


40 


60 


20 


65 


21 


80 


120 


20 


140 


2i 


80 


90 


10 


60 


75 


20 


80 


22 


60 


110 


20 


120 


*^4 


80 ilOO 


104 


50 


70 


20 


75 


224 


80 


120 


20 


150 


2| 


80 110 


11 


60 


55 


20 


120 


22| 


HO 


130 


20 


140 


3 


80 


120 


12 


90 


90 


20 


120 


23| 


40 


95 


20 


100 


3i 


80 


130 


12| 


60 


85 


20 


90 


24 


65 


120 


20 


130 


34 


80 


140 


13 


90 


90 


20 


130 


25 


60 


100 


20 


150 


8} 


40 


150 


134 


60 


90 


20 


90 


254 


30 


85 


20 


90 


4 


40 


8G 


131 


80 


100 


20 


110 


26 


70 


130 


20 


140 


H 


40 


8? 


14 


90 


90 


20 


140 


27 


40 


90 


20 


120 


4| 


40 


90 


14i 


60 


^0 


20 


95 


274 


40 


100 


20 


110 


41 


40 


95 


15 


90 


90 


20 


150 


28 


75 


140 


20 


150 


5 


40 


100 


16 


60 


80 


20 


120 


28* 


30 


90 


20 


95 


54 


40 


110 


16i 


80 


100 


20 


130 


30 


70 


140 


20 


150 


6 


40 


120 


164 


, 80 


no 


20 


120 


32 


30 


80 


20 


120 


64 


40 


130 


17 


! 45 85 


20 


90 


33 


40 


110 


20 


120 


7 


40 


j]40 


174 


80 100 


20 


140 


34 


30 


85 


20 


120 


74 


40 


,150 


18 


4C 60 


20 


120 


35 


1 60 


140 


20 


150 


8 


30 


,210 


ISi 


80 100 , 20 


150 


36 


] 30 


90 


20 


120 



Table by which to determint \he J^umber of Teeth, or Pitch 9f 
Small Wheels, by what i& cot^monly called the Majr<he^er 
Principle, 



Diametral 


Circular 


1 Pi^met. \\ 


Circuli* J 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


! P:t(L. 


Pitch. j 


3 


1.047 


9 


.349 


4 


.785 


10 


.314 


5 


.628 


12 


.262 


6 


.524 


14 


.224 


7 


.449 


16 


.196 


8 


.393 


20 1 


1^1^?.. 



168 



WH£ELS AND GITDGEOKS. 



Example 1. — Required the number of teeth that a wheel of 16 
Inches diameter will contain ot a 10 pitch. 

16 X 10 = 160 teeth, and ihe circular pitch = ,BH inch. 

Example 2. — What must be the diameter oi a wheel for a 9 pitch 
of 126 teeth ? 

126 -^ 9 = 14 inches diameter, circular pitch .349 inch. 

Note. — The pilch is reckoned on the diameter of the wheel instead ol the cif« 
cumterence, and designated wheels of 8 pitch, 12 pitch, &;c. 



mrength of ihe Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels at 


a given Velocity, 


Pitch 
of teeth 


Thickness 
of teeth 


Breadth 
of teeth 


Strength of teeth 


in horse pr 


wer at 


3 feet per 


4 feet per 


6 feet per 


8 feet per 


in inches. 


in inches. 


in inches. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


3.99 


1.9 


7.6 


20.57 


27.43 


41.14 


54.85 


3.78 


1.8 


7.2 


17.49 


23.32 


34.98 


46.64 


3.57 


1.7 


6.8 


14.73 


19.65 


29.46 


39.28 


3.36 


1.6 


64 


12.28 


16..38 


24.56 


3274 


3.15 


1.5 


6. 


10.12 


13..50 


20.24 


26.98 


2.94 


1.4 


5.6 


8.22 


10.97 


16.44 


21.92 


2.73 


1.3 


.2 


6.58 


8.78 


13.16 


17.54 


2.52 


1.2 


4.8 


5.18 


6.91 


10.36 


13.81 


2.31 


1.1 


4.4 


3.99 


5.32 


7.98 


10.64 


2.1 


1.0 


4. 


3.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 


1.89 


.9 


3.6 


2 18 


2.91 


436 


5.81 


1.68 


.8 


3.2 


1.53 


2.04 


.06 


3.08 


1.47 


.7 


2.8 


1.027 


1.37 


2.04 


2.72 


1.26 


.6 


2.4 


.64 


.86 


1.38 


184 


1.05 


.6 


2. 


.375 


.50 


.75 


1.00 



WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 

To find size of Teeth necessary to transmit a given Horse Powers 

(Tredgold.) 

Horse power X 240 



Diameter of wheel, ft. X Revs, per min. 

Strength 



V/. 



Strength 



= Pitch, ins. 



= Strength of tooth. 



, = Breadth, ins. 



Breadth, ins. '' "'"' (Pitch, ins.)2 

The above rule will be found very suitable for a speed of circum- 
ference of about 240 feet per minute. For speeds above, add to 240 
half the difference, for speeds below, deduct half the difference, be- 
tween 240 and the actual speed, the result being a suitable multiplier. 

For instance ; at 300 ft. per minute, 60 being the difference, 240 + 
SO = 270 multiplier. 

At 160 ft. per minute, 80 being the difference, 240 — 40 == 200 
multiplier. 



WAliR. 



169 



The reason being, Ihat with hioher speeds, the fiiclion, wear, and 
liability to shocks is increased, at lower speeds decreased, and the 
teeth may advantageously be proportioned accordingly. 

To find the Horse Power that any Wheel will transmit, 
(Pitch, ins.)^ X Breadth, ins. X Diameter ft. X Revs, per minute 

Appropriate No. accoruing to speed, as above. 
= Horse Power. 

To find the multiplying numher for any Wheel, 
(Pitch, ins.)^ X Breadth, ins. X Diameter ft. X Revs, per minute 

Horse Power 
= Multiplying No. as above. 

To find the size of Teeth to carry a given load in lbs. 
Load, lbs. -r- 1120 = Breaking strength of teeth. 
Load, lbs. -r- 2S0 = Strength for very low speeds, and for steady 

w^ork; being 4 times the breaking strength. 
L,Md, lbs. -7- 140 = Strength for ordinary purposes of machinery; 

being 8 times the breaking strength. 
Load, lbs. -r- 100 = Strength for high speeds, and irregular work; 
or when the teeth are exposed to shocks. 
As before, 



Strength _ _ , . |/ Strength 

r-prr— r-4 r^ = BfCadth, lUS. V — ^^ : 

(Pitch, ins.)2 ' ^ Breadth, ins. 



: Pitch, ins. 



WATER. 

To find the quantity of Water that will be discharged through an 
orifice, or pipe, in the side or bottom of a Vessel, 

Areaoforifice.sq.in. X ^ ^'°- <:°'-'f Pon^Iing *» height of surface 

' ^ ^ I above ormce, as per table 

= Cubic feet discharged per minute. 



Height of 

iurface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Heiglit of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


MultipUer. 


Height of 
Surface above 
[ Orifice. 


MultipUer. 


Ft. 

1 


2-25 


Ft. 

18 


95 


Ft. 
40 


14-2 


2 


8-2 


20 


10- 


45 


151 


4 


4-5 


22 


10-5 


50 


16- 


6 


5-44 


24 


11- 


60 


17-4 


8 


64 


26 


11-5 


70 


18-8 


10 


71 


28 


12- 


80 


20-1 


12 


7-8 


SO 


123 


90 


21-3 


14 


84 


32 


12-7 


100 


22-6 


16 


9- 


35 


13-3 







15 



1^0 WATfifl. 

To find the size of hole necessary to discharge a given quantity of 
Water under a given head, 

Cubic f t. water discharged 

No. corresponding to height, as per tabl^ "= ^'^^ ""^ ''"^^^' '^- ^°- 

To find the height necessary io discharge a given quantity through 

a given orifice. 
Cubic ft. water discharged __ 
Area orifice, sq. inches. = ^^' "°'^^^P- ^^ ^^^S^*, as per table. 

The velocity of Water issuing from an orifice in the side or bottom 
of a vessel being ascertained to be asfolloios: 

^Height ft. surface above orifice X 5-4 == i ^'^^^city of water, ft. 

\ per second. 

-'Height ft. X Area orifice, ft. X 324 = [ ^^^^^ ^ mlS'^^"^ ^^' 

^Height ft. X Area orifice, ins. X 2-2 = Do. Do. 

It may be observed, that the above rules represent the actual 
quantities that will be delivered through a hole cut in the plate ; if a 
short pipe [be attached, the quantity will be increased, the greatest 
delivery with a straight pipe being attained with a length equal to 4 
diameters, and being 1-3 more than the delivery through the plain 
hole ; the quantity gradually decreasing as the length of pipe is in- 
creased, till, with a length equal to 60 diameters the discharge again 
equals the discharge through the plain orifice. If a taper pipe be 
attached the delivery will be still greater, being IJ times the deliv- 
ery through the plain orifice ; and it is probable that if a pipe with 
curved decreasing taper were to be tried, the delivery through it 
would be equal to the theoretical discharge, which is about 1*65 the 
actual discharge through a plain hole. 

To find the quantity of Water that will run through any orifice^ 
the top of which is level with the surface of water as over a sluice 
or dain. 



i/Height, ft. from water surface to hot- ) ^ Area of water ) ^ 216 
^ tom of orifice or top of dam \ ^ passage, sq. ft. J 

= Cub ft. discharged per minute. 

Or, 
Two-thirds Area of water passage, sq. ins X No. corresponding to 

height as per table, = Cub. ft. discharged per minute. 

To find the time in which a Vessel will empty itself through a 
given orifice. 



%^Height ft. surface above orifice X Area water surface, sq. in». 

Area orifice, sq. in. X 3 7 
B= Time required, seconds. 

The above rules are founded on Bank's experiments. 



MECHANICAL TABLES 



FOR THE USE OF 



OPERATIVE SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS, 



AND 



ENGINEERS. 



172 



DIAMETEES AND CiRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



MECHANICAL TABLES 

FOR THE USE OF OPERATIVE SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS, AND 
ExNGlNEERS. 

The following Tables^ originally dedicated to * the JVational As»0' 
ciation of the Forgers of Iron TVork,^ Engla7id, by James Fo- 
DKN, will be found extremely useful to Smiths, generally, and 
are accompanied by Practical Examples. — Templetoiv. 
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam. 


Circ. 


Diam. 
Iii- 


Circ. 
Ft. In. 


Diam, 


C 


ire. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Fi. In. 'Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In 


Ft. In. 







H 


54 


I oi 


10 


2 


71 


1 n 


3 


^i 


1 6J 


4 114 


li 





34 


5| 


1 5| 








1 24 


3 


&4 


1 7 


4 Hi 


H 





H 


5| 


1 6 


lOJ 


2 


n 


1 2| 


3 


9i 









4i 


H 


1 6§ 


lOi 


2 


H 


1 2J 


3 


lOi 


1 n 


5 


14 





4| 


6 


1 6i 


10§ 


2 


84 


1 2J 


3 


10| 


1 7il 6 0| 


JS 





5 






104 


2 


8i 


1 3 


3 


11 


1 7f 


5 OS 


if 





H 


6| 


1 n 


10| 


2 


9f 








1 74 


5 li 


'^ 





H 


6i 


1 7| 


10| 


2 


91 


1 3J 


3 114 


1 7| 


5 li 





H 


6f 


1 8 


lOJ 


2 


lOJ 


1 3i 


3 


Hi 


1 7i 


5 2 








64 


1 8| 


11 


2 


104 


1 3f 


4 


Oi 


1 7J 


5 21 


21 





6| 


6| 


1 8| 








1 34 


4 


0& 


1 8 


5 2i 


H 





7 


6| 


A ^i 


11| 


2 


lOi 


1 3| 


4 


1 






% 





7i 


6* 


1 9^ 


Hi 


2 


Hi 


1 3| 


4 


li 


1 8J 


5 S| 





7| 


7 


1 9J 


iif 


2 


Hg 


1 3J 


4 


li 


1 8i 


5 3} 


2| 





8J 






114 


3 





1 4 


4 


2i 


1 8f 


5 4 


21 





8i 


7i 


1 lOf 


iif 


3 


04 








1 84 


5 4i 


2i 





9 


u 


1 1()| 


ii| 


3 


OJ 


1 4i 


4 


^ 


1 8| 


5 4: 


3 





H 


7| 


1 in 


11 J 


3 


H 


1 4i 


4 


3 


I 81 


5 5, 








74 


1 114 


1 


3 


^ 


1 4| 


4 


31 


1 8i 


5 5, 


31 





91 


7f 
71 


1 Hi 








1 44 


4 


3| 


1 9 


5 5 


H 





lOJ 


2 Oi 


1 oj 


3 


2 


1 4| 


4 


H 






35 





104 


n 


2 0| 


1 Oi 


3 


2| 


1 4| 


4 


44 


1 n 


5 61 


34 





IQl 


8 


n 


1 0| 


3 


2i 


1 4J 


4 


5 


1 9i 


5 6$ 


s| 





llf 






1 Oi 


3 


3i 


1 5 


4 


5f 


1 9f 


5 7t 


3| 





Hi 


8J 


2 14 


1 0| 


3 


3| 








1 94 


5 7A 


3} 
4 




oi 


8i 


2 li 


1 0| 


3 


4 


1 5i 


4 


51 


1 9S| 5 8 




04 


8f 


2 21 


1 oj 


3 


^ 


1 5i| 4 


6^ 


1 9i! 5 81 

1 9J 5 Sl 








84 


2 2| 


1 1 


3 


4| 


1 5|| 4 


64 


4i 




Oi 


8| 


2 3 








1 54j 4 


6i 


1 10 


5 9 


4i 




U 


81 


2 3| 


1 n 


3 


5i 


1 5|| 4 


71 






4i 




i| 


8i 


2 3J 


1 u 


3 


5| 


1 5^ 4 


7| 


1 lOJ 


5 94 


4;^ 




2^ 


9 


2 4i 


1 If 3 


6 


1 5i 


4 


8,^ 


1 loJ 


5 9i 


4I 




24 






1 14 3 


H 


I 6 


4 


84 


1 lOf 


5 104 


41 




24 


9i 


2 4| 


1 IS 


3 


6| 








1 104 


5 lOl 


4J 




H 


9i 


2 5 


1 H 


3 


7J 


1 6J 


4 


8i 


I loS 


5 11 


6 




3| 


9| 


2 5| 


1 n 


3 


7A 


1 6i 


4 


9i 


1 io| 


5 Hi 








94 


2 5| 


1 2 


3 


7| 


1 6| 


4 


9| 


1 lOJ 


5 Hi 


H 




4 


9| 


2 6J 








1 64 


4 


10 


1 11 


6 04 


H 




4S 


9| 


2 6| 


1 2J 


3 


8| 


I 6| 


4 


10| 






H 




Jk 


H 


2 7 


1 2i 3 


8| 


1 6i 4 


lOJ 


1 llj 6 0| 



DIAMETERS ANL olIlCUxMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 11 6 



Diam.! Circ. I Diana. Circ. Diam. Circ. I Diam. Circ. Diaiu. CifC. 



Ft. In. Ft. 

1 nil 6 

1 li|! 6 
1 1 1^1 6 
1 Ilf 6 




1 4 DIAMETERS ANb CIRCrMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam.| Circ. Diam. Circ. Diam. Circ. Diam. Circ. Diam. Cire. 

In. Fl. In. 

if;i9 24 

l|il9 21 

l|l9 34 

19 3| 



19 4| 
19 54 

19 5| 
19 6 
6| 
6| 

?i 

19 8 

19 8j 

"«il9 8l 

3419 9| 

3^!l9 9J 

19 92 

19 10| 

19 10| 

4|l9 lU 
4il9 111 
4f 19 ll| 
44 20 OJ 
4f 20 0| 
^^120 1 

20 14 
20 IJ 

5J 20 2i 

5II2O 2| 
5|20 3 

5420 Sf 

5f 20 8| 

5| 20 44 

5J20 4j 

6 20 5 

6' 20 6f 
64 20 53 

6|,20 ei 

64 20 el 

1 20 7 

6| 20 71 
6J20 71 




DIAMETERS AND u^CUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 175 




2^ 8 9.J.27 7| 

r ^|27 7| 

2i 8 91 27 84 

2|8 9127 8| 

3^ 8 10 27 9 

-^1 8 10^27 9| 
4 8 104 27 91 
4| 8 10|27 I0| 
5^ 8 lo| 27 lOi 
8 10|27 loi 
5| 8 10|27 n | 



176 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam. 



In.Ft. In. 

9i 33 9| 
33 10 
33 10| 
33 lol 




DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 177 



Diam. 



Fi In. 

11 2^ 

11 2i 

11 3 



11 



Circura. j Diam. Circum. j Diam. «. ircum. [ Diam. j Circum 



F:. In. 

35 3i 

35 3| 

35 4 



3i 35 44 

11 3^1 35 4J 

11 3f 35 bi 

11 3^ 35 5| 

11 3|; 35 b 

11 3|i 35 6f 

11 3J| 35 6| 

11 4 j 35 7^ 

U 4^! 35 7§ 

11 4^1 35 8 

U 4| 35 Sf 

11 4^; 35 8| 

11 4| 35 9| 

"^ 35 9i 

35 10 




Fl. In.; Ft. In. [Ft. In 

11 5|| 36 01 11 8| 

11 5J 36 1^ 11 8J 

11 6 36 1^ 11 9 



Ft. In. 

36 10^ 

36 104 

36 10} 



11 6^ 36 IJ 11 9^ 36 Hi 
11 6i 36 2i 11 9^' 36 U^ 



11 6| 36 2| 

11 64 36 3 

11 6| 36 34 

11 Ci 36 3} 

11 6}j 36 4i 

11 7 I 36 4| 



36 5 

36 5| 
36 51 



11 74 1 36 6^ 

11 ^\ 36 6| 



11 

11 7j 

11 8 



36 7 

36 7| 

36 7| 




11 94 i 37 04 

11 9| 37 0| 

11 H' 37 1^ 

11 91 37 If 

11 10 37 2 

11 10^ 37 24 

11 lO^i 37 21 

11 1C| 37 34 

11 loj: 37 3| 

11 l(!f 37 4 

11 lOti ^7 4f 

11 10l| 37 4| 

11 11 37 5i 




Ft. In.' Ft. In 
11 111 37 74 



11 11} 

12 



37 
37 



12 0} 37 8| 

12 04 37 9| 

12 0| 37 94 

12 04 37 9} 

12 0| 37 lOj 

12 0| 37 10| 

12 0} 37 llj 



12 1 



37 114 



12 1} 37 Hi 

12 14' 38 Oi 

12 1|: 38 Cj 

12 141 38 1 

12 1|! 38 1| 

12 l|i 38 Ij 

12 1}I 38 2J 

12 2 i 38 2f 




If a Hoop ot larger diameter than 12 feet is required, double some ri ruber. 

Observations on Tabi.es relating to the Diameters and 

Circumferences of Circles. 

1 do not intend to enter into any labored argument to prove the general 
vilility of these Tables, as their simplicity and clearness are sufficient to 
stamp their value to the artist and mechanic. It will be clearly perceived, 
on inspection, that the Table commences with as snr> all a diameter as is gen- 
erally used in hoops and rings, viz. one inch, and nicreases by the regular 
gradation of one-eighth of an i::oh, to upwards of twelve feet; and in ihe 
column marked Circumference, ig-^iiist each Di-^meter stand the respective 
circumferences : hence all that is necessary on inspecting these Tables is to 
enter into them with any proposed diameter or circumference, and an answer 
to the inquiry is immediately obtained. 

Example. — Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter being S 
feet 7 7-8 inches ? 

In the column of circumferences, opposite the given diameter, stands 27 
feet 2^ inches, the circumference required. 

But it will be necessary to observe, that in the formation oi hoopg and 
nngs a contraction of the metal takes place. Now, the just allowance foj 
this contraction is the exact thickness of the metal, which must be added to 
the diameter. 

Ex. — In makmg a hoop whose diameter mside is 6 feet 9 1-8 inches, the 
thickness of the iron being 4 inch, this 4 '«t:h must be added to the given 
diameter, which will make it 6 feet 9 5-8 'a es] this will ahow 1 5-8 inch 



178 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

for the contraction in bending in a hoo^ of the above diameter, giving th€ 
rircumferenoe or length of iron required for the hoop, 21 feet 4 3-8 inches. 

The foregoing example appertains to the formation of hoops or iron benl 
on the flat 5 but in the formation of rings or iron bent on the edge, the same 
rule must also be followed, only taking care to add the breadth instead o! 
the thickness. As for example : 

To make a ring whose inside diameter is 8 feet 2^ inches, the breadth of 
the iron being 2J inches ; by adding the 2^ inches to the given diameter, 
will increase it to 8 feet 4| inches 5 opposite to this diameter in the column 
of circumferences stands 26 feet 4^ inches, being the length of iron necessary 
for the ring. 

The foregoing observations relate more particularly to plain hoops and 
Hug's 5 but as respects the hoops that are on the wheels of railway carnages, 
a difterence must be observed, which is as follows : These hoops havmg 
a fl inge projecting on the one edge of the surface, it will be necessary, in 
addition to the thickness of the metal, to add two-thirds of the thickness of tJ^e 
flange to the diameter, as the flange side would contract considerably mofe 
than the plain surface ; this is supposing the tires are in a straight form, but, 
m general, they come from the iron works in a curved state In the latter 
case, it will be only necessary to add the thickness of the bare metal, as the 
aforesaid portion of the tnickncss of the flange is allowed for in the curve. 
It has been found that the curve may be exactly obtained, by using four 
times the circumference of the hoop as a radius. 

If the tire has not been previously curved, it m^iy easily be none m the 
operation of bending; the smith must pay particular attention to this, or he 
will haTe his hoop bent in an angle. 

But the practical utility of this Table is not confined to smiths alone 5 to 
the millwright it will be found equally useful and expeditious, as on a bare 
inspection of the Table he may ascertain the diameter of any wheel that 
may be required to be made, the pitch and number of teeth being given. 

Ex. — Suppose a wheel were ordered to be made to contain sixty teeth, 
the pitch of the teeth to be 3 7-8 inches, the dimensions of the wheel may be 
ascfTtained simply as follows: 

Multiply the pitch of the tooth by the number of teeth the wheel is fcc 
eontain, and the product will be the circumference of the wheel : thus 
3^ inches pitch cf the tooth, 
10 X 6 = 60 the number of teeth. 

Feet 19 4J the circumference of the wheel. 

However, by inspecting the column marked Circumference, I find the 
nearest number to this is 19 feet 4 3-8 inches, which is the eighth of an inch 
less than the true circumference ; but if this 1-8 were divided into 60 equal 
parts, it would not make the diflTerence of a single hair's-breadtn in the size 
of each tooth ; so that it is sufficiently near for any practical purpose. The 
diameter answering to this circumference is 6 feet 2 inches ; consequently, 
with one-half of this number as a radius, the circumference of the wheel 
¥ill be described. 

The manner in which the foregoing Table of Circumferences is found fi 
aa follows • Taking the diameter at unity, we have by decimal prooortion 

in. in. 
Asl : 31416 :: 1- : 31416, 
and the decimal 1416 multiplied by 8, gives the circumference for I inch 
of diameter 3 1-8 inches. 

In these Tables the number 3*1416 is divided by 8, which gives 3927 
This decimal proportion has been used as a constant, and the sum muliipjjed 
by 8 gives the excess above the decimal ?aJue in eighths of an inch 



CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 179 



CIRCUIVIFERENCES FOR ANGLED IROJN HOOPS. 

ANGLE OUTSIDX. 



r^^iara.l Circ. Diam., Circ. | Diam.| Circ. Diam 




180 CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 



CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 

▲NOLE INSIDE. 




CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. iPl 

Observations on Table containing the Circumfkrencks foi 
Anglfd Iron Hoops. — Angle Outside. 

As this Table will be useful to those smiths who chiefly work ang-led 
iron, it will be necessary to remark, that the observation made on Tables 
relating to the Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, respecting- addmg 
the thickness of the iron to the diameter, must be attended to in this, with 
tfeis difference,— the breadth of the angle must be added to the diameter. 

Example. — Suppose a hoop is wanted to be made of 2J inch angled iron, 
whose diameter inside must be 12 inches. Here the Synches must be add- 
ed to the 12 inches, which raises the number to 1 foot t^ inches. Looking 
into the Table, I find the circumference, or length of iron requisite for the 
hoop, is 3 feet 6J mches. 

Observations on Table containing the Circumferences fob 
Angled Iron Hoops. — Angle Inside. 

The observations respecting this Table are the reverse to those on the 
preceding one, — viz. the breadth of the angle must be taken from the diam- 
eter, — for this reason, that the diameter is taken from outside to outside of 
the ri-ng. 

Suppose a ring is to be made of angled iron, whose diameter outside is to 
be 12 inches, the breadth of the angle 2^ inches j then, by taking 2«^ inchea 
from 12 inches, we hav^e left 9^ inches. Looking into the Table in the col- 
amn of diameters, I find in the circumference column, opposite 9^ inches, 
2. feet 8^ inches, which is the length of iron necessary for the ring. 

Ii has been already observed, that between angled and plain iron a con- 
siderable difference exists with regard to the proportion of the circumference 
to the diameter : this is owing to the angle or flange on one side of the bar, 
and when the iron is formed into a hoop : it contracts more or less, as the 
angle or flange may be inside or outside of the hoop. From repeated ex 
periments on this subject, I have ascertained that the proportions of tht 
diameters to the circumferences are as follows: — For the angle inside as 
1 : 3-4248, and for the angle outside the hoop, as 1 : 2-9312 : : Diam ; Circ'f. 

Problem — To find the circumference of an ellipse, or an oval hoop or ring. 

Rule. — Add the length of the two axes together, and multiply the sum by 
1-5708 for the circumference j or as it may be used in the Table of Circum- 
ferences, take half the sum of the axes as a diameter, with the breadth ot 
the iron added, and enter the Table of Circumferences where it will be found. 

Ex. — Required the circumference of an elliptical hoop, whose axes are 
184 aod 13 inches, the thickness of the iron being 2^ inches. 

ISi -f 13 = 31| -^ 2 = 15| + 2| = 18i inches the diameter. 

Ent*^ring into the Table of Diameter with 18^ inches, the circumference 
will be found to be 4 feet 9^ inches. 

In constructing elliptical hoops of angled iron, with the angle outside, 
reference must be made to the Tables for hoops of angled iron 5 the opera- 
tion will be similar to the above example. But in hoops where the angle is 
inside, the thickness of the iron must be taken from half the sum of the «xt(«. 

Note. — It must be observed, that in the examples given in the Observa- 
tions on Table relating to the Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, 
ind also on hoops formed of angled iron, that those circumferences are 
nothing more than the ends of the iron meeting together; therefore every 
■miih must allow for the thickening- of the ends of the m^tdJ previous io 
iCHiTing the same in order to weld it. 

16 



18^ SHIP AND RAILROAD SFIKES, AND HORSE SHOES. 



SHIP AND RAILROAD SPIKES. 



NUMBER OF IRON SPIKES PER 100 POUNDS. 

Manufii£tured by Philip C. Page, Mass., and Sold by Page, Brisgs Sl 
Babbitt, Boston. 



Ship Spikes 

or 
Hatch Nails 

1-4 in. sq're. 


1 ii 






® OS 


size No. 


sizel No. i 


size. No. 


in 10 


in 


10 


in 11 


inc lbs. 


inc. 


lbs. 


mc. 


lbs. 


3 1900 


3 


1000 


4 


540 


341580 


34 


960 


44 


500 


4 |1320 


4 


800 


5 460 


44'l220 


44 


600 


54 420 


5 1020 


5 


580 


6 400 


— — 


6 


520 


64 320 


— — 


— 


— 


— 


— 



p Spikes 
7-16 
h square. 




o 


size 
in 


No. 
10 


inc. 


lbs. 


5 


340 


54 


310 


6 


800 


64 


280 


7 


260 


74 


240 


« 


220 


— 


— 



Ship Spikes 

1-2 
inch square. 


to 
a, 

1 


c3 


size 
ill 
inc. 

6 


No. 
10 

lbs. 


size 
in 
inc. 


No. 
10 
lbs. 


220 


8 


140 


64 


200 


9 


120 


7 


190 


10 


110 


74 


180 


11 


100 


8 


170 








84 


160 


— 


— 


9 


150 


— 


— 


10 


140 


— 


— 



.9- M 



No. 

10 

lbs. 

80 
60 



Rail Road Spikes 9-16th8 square 54 inches 160 per 100 pounds. 
Rail Road Spikes 1-2 inch " 54 *< 200 per 100 pounds. 



BURDEN'S PATENT SPIKES AND HORSE SHOES. 

Manufactured at the Troy Iron and Nail Factory^ Troy, New York, 



Boat 


Spikes. 


Ship Spikes. 


j Hook Head. 


Horse Shoe*. 


Size in 
inches. 


No. in 
100 lbs. 


Size in 
inches. 


No. in 
100 lbs. 


Size in 
inches. 


No. in 
100 lbs. 


Size in 
inches. 


No. i*i 
100 lbs. 


3 

S4 

4 

44 
5 

54 
6 

64 

7 

74 

8 

84 
9 
10 


1750 
1468 
1257 
920 
720 
630 
497 
478 
362 
337 
295 
290 
210 
198 


4 

44 
5 

54 
6 

64 

7 

74 

8 

8i 
9 
10 


800 
650 
437 
430 
420 
377 
275 
250 
174 
163 
155 
115 


; 4 x| 

44X7-16 

5 X4 
54X4 
54x9-16 

1 6 X9-16 

6 Xi 

7 X916 

8 X| 


555 
414 
252 
241 
187 
172 
138 
140 
110 


1 

2 
8 
4 
5 

1 


84 
75 
65 
56 
39 



COPPERS TUBING. CAST IRON AND STEEL. 



183 



COTFEBS. ^Dimejisions and Weight from 1 to 208 Gallons. 



Inches 




Weight 


i Inches 




Weight 


Inches 




Weigh! 


lag 


Gallons. 


in 


1 lag 


Gallons. 


in 


lag 


Gallons. 


in 


to brim. 




pounds. 


to brim. 




pounds. 


to brim- 




pounds. 


9i 


1 


14 


24 


15 


224 


294 


29 


434 


12i 


2 


3 


244 


16 


24 


30 


30 


45 


14 


3 


44 


25 


17 


254 


32 


36 


54 


154 


4 


6 


254 


18 


27 


34 


43 


644 


164 


5 


74 


26 


19 


28i 


35 


48 


72 


174 


6 


9 


264 


20 


30 


36 


53 


794 


184 


7 


104 


26J 


21 


314 


37 


58 


87 


194 


8 


12 


27 


22 


33 


38 


63 


944 


20| 


9 


134 


27r 


23 


344 


39 


67 


1004 


21 


10 


15 


274 


24 


36 


40 


71 


1064 


214 


11 


164 


273 


25 


374 


45 


104 


156 


22 


12 


18 


28 


26 


39 


50 


146 


219 


224 


13 


194 


284 


27 


404 


55 


208 


312 


23i 


14 


21 


29 


28 


42 









COPPER TUBING.^ Weight of the usual Thichness. 
When the inside diameter, is ^ of an inch, 3 ozs. j | do., 5 ozs. ; 4 do. 
6 ozs. ; I do., 8 ozs. ; J do., 10 ozs. per foot. 

BRASS, COPPER, STEEL AND l.EAB.-^We:^ht of a Foot, 



BRASS. ; 


COPPER. 


STEEL. 


LEAD. 


Diam'ter 


, Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


and Side 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of Sq're. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 
Lbs. 


Square. 
Lbs. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Squart. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


^ 


.17 


.22 


.19 


.24 


.17 


.21 






i 


.39 


.50 


.42 


.54 


.38 


.48 






h 


.70 


.90 


.75 


.96 


.67 


.85 








1.10 


1.40 


1.17 


1.50 


1.04 


1.33 






} 


1.59 


2.02 


1.69 


2.16 


1.50 


1.91 






I 


2.16 


2.75 


2.31 


2 94 


2.05 


2.61 






1 


2.83 


3.60 


3.02 


3.84 


2.67 


3.40 


3.87 


4.93 


li 


3.58 


4.56 


3.82 


4.86 


3.38 


4..34 


4.90 


6.25 


1; 


4.42 


5.63 


4.71 


6. 


4.18 


5.32 


6.06 


7.71 


If 


5.35 


6.81 


5.71 


7.27 


5.06 


6.44 


[ 7.33 


9 33 


14 


6.36 


8.10 


6.79 


8.65 


6.02 


7.67 


8 72 


11.11 


n 


7.47 


9.51 


7.94 


10.15 


7.07 


9. 


10.24 


13.04 


li; 


8.66 


11.03 


9.21 


11.77 


8.20 


10.14 


11 87 


15.12 


li 


9.95 


12.66 


10.61 


13.52 


9.41 


11.98 


13.63 


17.36 


2 


11.22 


14.41 


12.08 


15.38 


10.71 


13.63 


15.51 


19.75 


2i 


12.78 


16.27 


13.64 


17.36 


12.05 


15.80 


17.51 


22.29 


2^ 


14.32 


18.24 


15.29 


19.47 


13.51 


17.20 


19.63 


25. • 


% 


15.96 


20.32 


17.03 


21.69 


15 05 


19.17 


21.80 


27.80 


24 


17.68 


22.53 i 


18.87 


24.03 


16.68 


21.21 


24.24 


30.86 


2& 


19.50 


24.83 ! 


20.81 


26.50 


18.39 


23.41 


26.72 


34.02 


2 


21.40 


27.25 ! 


22.84 


29.08 


20.18 


25.70 


29.33 


37.34 


24 


23.39 


29.78 1 
32.43 


24.92 


31.79 


22 06 


28.10 


32.05 


40.81 


IS 


25.47 


27.18 


34.61 ; 


24.23 


30.60 


34.90 


44.44 



184 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON & IRON A.NL BRASS BALLS, 



CAST IRON. 

Weight of a Foot in Length of Flat Cast Iron. 



Width 


Thick, 


Thick, 


1 Thick, 


1 Thick, 


j Thick, 


, Thick, 


Thick; 


of Iron. 


l-4th inch. 


3-8tl.s iuch 
Pounds. 


1-2 inch. 


5-8ths inch. 
Pounds. 


3-4th8 inclu 


7-8ths inch. 


1 inch. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds, 


2 


1-56 


2-34 


3 12 


S-9<i 


4-68 


5-46 


6-25 


2i 


1-75 


2-63 


3-51 


4-39 


5-27 


6-15 


7-03 


24 


1-95 


2-92 


3-90 


4-88 


5-85 


6-83 


7-81 


2J 


214 


322 


4-29 


5-37 


6-44 


7-51 


8-59 


3 


2-34 


351 


4-68 


5-85 


703 


8-20 


9-37 


H 


253 


3-80 


5-07 


6-34 


7-61 


8-88 


1015 


34 


273 


410 


546 


683 


8-20 


9-57 


10-93 


3| 


293 


4-39 


5-85 


732 


8-78 


10-25 


11-71 


4 


312 


4-68 


6-25 


7-81 


9-37 


10-93 


12-50 


4i 


3-32 


4-97 


6-64 


8-30 


9-96 


11-62 


13-28 


44 


3-51 


5 27 


7-03 


8-78 


1054 


12-30 


14-06 


4? 


371 


556 


7-42 


9-27 


1113 


12-98 


14-84 


£ 


3-90 


5-86 


7-81 


9-76 


11 71 


13-67 


15-62 


5i 


4-10 


615 


8-20 


10-25 


12-30 


14-35 


16-40 


54 


429 


6-44 


8-59 


10-74 


12-89 


1503 


1718 


5| 


4-49 


6-73 


8-98 


11-23 


13-46 


15-72 


17-96 


6 


4-68 


7-03 


9-37 


11-71 


14-06 


16-40 


18-76 



CAST IRON. 

Weight of a Superficial Foot from ^ to 2 inches thicfC. 



Size. 


Weight. 
Pounds. 
9.37 
14.06 
18.75 


Size. 


Weight. 
Pounds. 

23.43 
28.12 
32.81 


Size. 
Ins. 

1 

n 

H 


Weight. 
Pounds. 

37.50 
42.18 

46.87 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size 
Ins. 

n 
2 


Weight. 


Ins. 
i 


Ins. 
1 


Ins. 

If 


Pounds. 

51.56 
56.25 
60.93 


Pounds. 

65.62 
70.31 
75 



CAST IRON, COPPER, BRASS, AND LEAD BALLS. 

Weight of Cast Iron, Copper, Brass, and Lead Balls, from 1 inch t€ 
12 inches in Diameter. 



1 


Ii 


1 


« 


^ 


.| 


II 


i 
1 


p 


1 


1118. 

1 


pounds. 

•136 


pounds. 

•166 


pounds. 

•158 


pounds. 

•214 


Inches, 

7 


pounds. 

46-76 


pounds. 
57-1 


pounds. 

54-5 


poundfc 

73-7 


14 


•46 


•562 


•537 


•727 


7* 


57-52 


700 


6711 


90-0 


2 


1-09 


1-3 


1-25 


17 


8 


69-81 


85-2 


81-4 


110-1 


24 


213 


2-60 


2-50 


3-35 


84 


83-73 


102-3 


100-0 


132-3 


3 


3-68 


4-5 


4-3 


5-8 


9 


99.4 


121-3 


1159 


156-7 


34 


5-84 


714 


6-82 


923 


94 


116-9 


143-0 


136-4 


184-7 


4 


8-72 


10-7 


10-2 


138 


1 10 


136-35 


166-4 


1590 


2150 


44 


12-42 


15-25 


14-5 


19-6 


104 


J 57-84 


193-0 


184-0 


250^O 


5 


17-04 


20-8 


19-9 


26-9 


11 


181-48 


221-8 


211-8 


286^T 


54 


22-68 


27-74 


26-47 


36-0 


m 


207-37 


253-5 


242-0 


3277 


6 


29-45 


35-9 


34-3 


46-4 


12 


235 62 28S-1 


275-0 


372:3 


64 


37-44 145-76 


43-67 


5913 




1 







WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUARE CAST IRON. 



165 



CAST IRON. 


--We 


^g^^^ of a Foot in Length of Sq 


uare and Round. 


SQUARE, 


ROUND. 


Size. 


Weight. „ 
Pounds. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 

: Inches 
Diam. 


Weight 


[ucbes 
Square 


Inches 
Square. 


Pounds. 


;Inches 
Diam. 


rounds. 


Poundi. 


i 


•78 


4i 


74-26 


4 


•61 


H 


58-32 


1 


1-22 


5 


7812 


1 


•95 


5 


61-35 


1 


1-75 


H 


82-08 


1 


1-38 


H 


64-46 


i 


2-39 


H 


86-13 


5 


187 


H 


67-64 




312 


51 


90-28 




2-45 


5| 


7009 


It 


3-95 


54 


94-53 


n 


3 10 


54 


74-24 


H 


4-88 


5| 


98-87 




3 83 


5| 


77-65 


If 


5-90 


5| 


103-32 


If 


4-64 


5| 


8114 


14 


7-03 


H 


107-86 


i| 


5-52 ) 


•55 


84-71 


i| 


8-25 


6 


112-50 


If 


6-48 


6 


88-35 


i| 


9-57 


H 


122-08 


1| 


7-51 


H 


95-87 


li 


10-98 


64 


132-03 


IJ 


8-62 


64 


103-69 




1250 


64 


142-38 


2 


9-81 


6| 


111 82 


2i 


1411 


7 


153-12 


n 


1108 


7 


12026 


2i 


15-81 


^i 


164-25 


H 


12-42 


7i 


129- 


21 


1762 


74 


175-78 


21 


1384 


74 


138-05 


24 


19-53 


7| 


187-68 


24 


15-33 


n 


147-41 


2| 


21-53 


8 


200- 


2f 


1691 


8 


15708 


2| 


23-63 


H 


212-56 


2| 


18-56 


Si 


16705 


2i 


25-83 


84 


225-78 


25 


20-28 


84 


17710 


3 


28-12 


8| 


239-25 


3 


22-08 


8| 


187-91 


34 


30-51 


9 


253-12 


3J 


23-96 


9 


198-79 


H 


33- 


H 


267-38 


H 


25-92 1 


H 


210- 


3i 


35-59 


94 


282- 


3| 


27-95 


94 


221-50 


34 


38-28 


9i 


297-07 


34 


30-06 


91 


233-31 


31 


4106 


10 


312-50 


^ 


32-25 , 


10 


245-43 


31 


43-94 


10| 


328-32 


3| 


34-51 ' 


lOi 


257-86 


3i 


46-92 


104 


344-53 


H 


3685 ' 


104 


270-59 


4 


50- 


lOJ 


361-13 


4 


39-27 


10| 


283-63 


*i 


53-14 


11 


37812 


^ 


41 76 


11 


296-97 


*i 


56-44 


Hi 


395-50 


4i 


44-27 


lU 


310-63 


4| 


59-81 


114 


413-28 


^ 


46-97 ' 


114 


324-59 


44 


63-28 


111 


431-44 


44 


49-70 . 


111 


338-85 


4| 


66-84 


12 


450- 


4| 


52-50 


12 


35343 


4} 


70-50 






4| 


55-37 









STEEL. - 


- Weight of a 


Foot in Length of Flat. 




Size. 


Thick, 
1-4 inch- 

pounds. 

•852 


Thick, 

3-8th3. 


Thick, 
1-2 inch. 


Thick, , 

5-ftths. 


Size. 


Thick, 1 Thick, : Thick, 
1-4 inch. 3-Sths. ]-2 inch. 


Th'ck, 
5-8thg. 


tachea 

1 


pounds. 
1-27 


pounds. 
1-70 


pounda, 

2.13 


Inches. 
24 


pounds. 

2 13 


pounds. 
3-20 


pounds. 

4-26- 


poundJk 

5-32 


u 


-958 


143 


1-91 


2-39 '= 


2J 


234 


3-51 


4-68 


5-85 


li 


1-06 


1-59 


2 13 


26b 


3 


2-55 


383 


5 11 


6-39 


n 


1 17 


1 75 


2 34 


2-92 


3i 


2 77 


4-15 


553 


6-92 


14 


1 27 


1 91 


255 


3-19 


34 


2-98 


4-47 


5-98 


745 


It 


1-49 


223 


2-98 


372 


3} 


319 


4-79 


6-38 


7-98 


2 


1 70 


2-55 


3 40 


4-26 


4 


.3-40 


5-10 


6-80 


8-62 


H 


191 


2-87 


383 


4-79 













16^ 



186 



PARALLEL AND TAPER ANGLE IROW. 



WEIGHTS OF ROLLED IRON 

Pet lineal foot, in pounds and decimal parts, of sections 0/ Parallel AngU 
laver Angle, Parallel J, Taper J, and Sash Iron and Rails, 

Table I. — Parallel Angle Iron, of E^ual SideSi 



Lenfi^th of sides. 


Uniform thickness 


Weight of one 


A B, in inches. 


throughout. 


lineal fool. 


in. 


in. 




3 


>! 


8-0 


2| 


1 


70 


2i 


1 


575 


2i 


5-16ths 


4-5 


2 


4 full 


375 


11 


\ 


30 


14 


k 


25 


I| 


No. 6 wire guage 


1-75 


H 


8 


1-5 


H 


9 


125 


1 


10 


10 


8 


10 


•875 


11 


•625 


4 


11 


•563 


I 


12 


•5 



Z///////////X^^^^y. 



A - — -^ 



r 
r 



Table II. — Parallel Angle Irok, of Unequal Sides. 



L'fi^th of side 


L'^hof side 


Uniform 


Weight of 1 


A m inches. 


B in inches. 


thickness 
throughout. 


lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




34 


5 


1 


9-75 


3 


5 


I 


8-75 


3 


4 


5-16ths 


7-5 


2i 


4 


5-16ths 


6-75 


H 


4 




5-75 


2 


4 




5-5 


24 


3 




4-75 


2 


24 




3-375 


14 


2 




2-875 


14 


2 


3-16ths 


2-25 



^^^^ 



Table III— Tafer Angle Iron, of Equal Sides 



L'gth of sides 


Thickness of 


Thickness of 


Weight of 1 


A.A, in inches. 


edges at b. 


root at c. 


lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




4 


4 


4 


140 


3 


4 


1 


10-375 


2i 


7-16ths 


9-16ths 


8-25 


24 


} 


4 


6-5 


H 


5-16ths,full 


7-16ths 


50 


2 


i full 


5.16ths full 


3-875 


i| 


i 


5-16ths 


3-25 


\ '4 


^ bare 


5 16th, bare 


2 625 




WklGilV Of PARALLEL AND TAPER T IRON 



187 



WKIGin^ OF PARALLEL AND TAPER T IRON. 

Table IV. ^ Parallel J iron, of Unequal Width and Deptu 



Width 


Total 


Uniform 


Uniform 


Weight of 


of top 


depth 


thickness 


thickness 


one lineal 


table A. 


B. 


top table c 


of rib D. 


foot. . 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




5 


6 


4 


4 


L5'75 


44 


H 


4 


9-16ths 


13-25 


4 


3 




|. 


8-875 


H 


3 


1 


3. 


8-25 


H 


4 


4 


i 


12 5 


24 


3 


1 




70 


2i 


2 


5-16ths 


ffull 


4-5 


2 


14 


5-16ths 


5-16ths 


4-0 


13 


2 


i 




3- 125 


14 


2 


i 




2-875 


li 


14 


i 


^. 


2375 


1 


li 


3-16ths 


3-16ths 


1-5 


i 


1 


3-16ths 


3-16ths 


1 125 



i I 



Ib 



J 



i> 



Table V. — Parallel J Iron, of Equal Depth amd Widti 



\/////////// /?y;^/777Z\ 



Width of top ta- 


Uniform 


Weight of 


ble, and total 


thickness 


one 


depth a, a. 


throughout 


lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 




6 


4 




5 


7.16ths 


13-75 


4 


1 


9-75 


34 


1 


8-5 


3 


1- 


7-5 


24 


5-16ths 


4-625 


2i 


5-16ths 


4-5 


2 


5-16ths 


3-75 


li 


i 


3-0 


14 


i 


2-25 


li 


i 


1-75 


1 


3.16ths 


10 


I 


\ 


•725 


1 


•625 



i 1 







Table VL — 


Taper T Irok 


Width 


Total 


Thickness'Thickness' Uniform J Weight 


of top 


depth 


of top table of top table thicknesof of one 


table A 


B. 

in. 


at root c. 


at edges D.l nb e. 


I in. foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




3 


H 


4 


« 


7-16ths 


80 


3 


2f 


7-16ths 


1 


4 


8-0 


2 


3 


7-16ths 


5.16ths 


5-16th« 


5-25 


24 


24 


1 full 


4 


4 full 


6-5 


2 


14 


5-16ths 


i 


3-5 


2 


jlJ 


5-16ths 


i 


i 


2-875 




188 



WEIGHT OF IRON SASHES AND R4ir.». 



WEIGHT OF SASHES AND RAILS. 
Table VII, — Sash Iron. 



Tola! 


Depth 


Width 


greatest 


Weight of 


depth 


of re- 


at edge c. 


width 


one lineal 


A. 


bate B. 




D. 


foot. 


in. 


in. 




in. 




2 


1 


No. 9 vv. guage 


5-8rhs 


1-75 


1| 


1 


7 


9-I6ths 


1-625 


14 


1 


6 


9-16ths 


1-25 


If 




10 


9-l6ths 


1125 


4 


1 


10 


9-16ths 


10 


1 


1 


* 


4 


•75 




Table VIIL — Rails eq.ua.l top and bottom Tables. 

B- 



Depth A 

in inches. 



in. 
5 

44 
44 



Width across I , . , 
top and bottom, ^ hickness 



BBj in inches. 



171, 

2f 
24 
24 



of rib c. 



Weight of 
1 lin. fool. 



250 

23-33 

21-66 





Table IX. — Temporary Rails 



Top width 

A. 



14 

5' 



Rib width 

B. 



Bed width 
c. 



in. 

3 

3 

4 

4 



Total 
depth D. 



in. 
2 

24 

3 

3 



Thickness 

of bed E. 



in. 
7-16ths 
4 



Weight of 
1 lin. fool 



90 
120 
160 
1733 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 



189 



UTEIGHT OF A LINEAL FOOT OF MALLEABLE 
TANGULAR OR FLAT IRON. 

From an Eighth of an Inch to Three Inches TJiick. 
T designates the thickness, B. the breadth. 



REO 



T. 


B. 1 Weight. 


T 

in 


1 B. 
in. 


1 Weight. 


T 


' in. 


j Weight. 


T. B. 

n. in. 


1 Weight. 


in. 


in 


lbs. ozs. 


lbs. ozs. 


in 


lbs. ozs. 


jbs. oai 


i 




1.6 


i 


iioj 


4 7-3 


i 


94 


7 141 


8 81 


^ 10 13-8 


] 


2-4 




11 


4 9-0 




9| 


8 14 


9 


11 2.8 




s 


3-3 




m 


4 10-7 




10 


8 4-8 


H 


11 7-8 




1 41 
1 5-0 




lid 


4 12-3 




lOi 


8 8-1 


H 


11 127 






111 


4 140 




104 


8 11 4 


9| 


12 1-7 




i 5-8 




12 


4 15-6 




10| 


8 14-7 


10 


12 67 




1 

H 


66 










11 

Hi 


9 2-0 
9 5-4 


lOi 

104 


12 11 6 

13 0-6 




8-3 


i 


i 


6-6 






n 


9-9 




f 


8-3 




114 


9 8-7 


io| 


13 5 6 




li 


11-6 




1 


10-0 




111 


9 12 


11 


13 10-5 




2 


13-2 




i 


11 6 




12 


9 15 3 


Hi 


13 15-5 




2i 


14-9 




1 

li 


13-2 

1 0-6 








114 
111 


14 4-5 
14 9-4 




1 d-6 




1 


1 


14-9 




2i 


1 2-2 




14 


1 3-9 




i 


1 1-3 


12 


14 14-4 




3 


1 3-9 
1 55 




li 

2 


1 7*2 




1 
li 


1 3-8 - 

1 8-8 








H 




1 10.5 




4 1 


1 10-4 




34 


1 72 




2i 


1 13-8 




14 


1 13-8 


li 


2 11 




3S 


1 8-9 




24 


2 1-2 




li 


2 2-7 


14 


2 7-7 




4 


1 10 5 




21 


2 4-5 




2 


2 7-7 


i| 


2 14-8 




4i 


1 12-2 




3 


2 7-8 




2i 


2 12-7 


2 


3 4-9 




4i 


1 13 8 




3i 


2 11 1 




24 


3 1-6 


H 


3 11-6 




4i 


1 15-5 




34 


2 14-4 




2| 


3 6-6 


24 


4 2-2 




5 


2 12 




3i 


3 1-8 




3 


3 11-6 


21 


4 8.8 




5i 


2 2-8 




4 


3 51 




3i 


4 0-5 


3 


4 15-4 




ei 


2 4-5 




4i 


3 8-4 




34 


4 5-5 


H 


5 61 




5i 


2 61 




44 


3 11 7 




3i 


4 10-5 


34 


5 12-7 




6 


2 7 8 




4i 


3 15-0 




4 


4 15-4 


3i 


6 8.3 




H 


2 9-5 




5 


4 2-4 




44 


5 4-4 


4 


6 9-9 




64 


2 111 




5i 


4 5-7 




44 


5 9-4 


4i 


7 0-6 




6i 


2 12 8 




54 


4 90 




4i 


5 14-3 


44 


7 7-2 




7 


2 14-4 




51 


4 12-3 




5 


6 3-3 


41 


7 13 8 




Ti 


3 1 




6 


4 15-6 




5i 


6 8-3 


5 


8 4-4 




74 


3 1-8 




6i 


5 3-0 




54 


6 13-2 


H 


8 111 




71 


3 3-4 




64 


5 6-3 




5i 


7 2-2 


54 


9 17 




8 


3 51 




6l 


5 96 




6 


7 7-2 


51 


9 83 




8i 


3 6-7 




7 


5 130 




6i 


7 12-2 


6 


9 14-9 




84 


3 8-4 




7i 


6 02 




64 


8 11 


6i 


10 5-6 




8S 


3 10 1 




74 


6 3-6 




61 


8 61 


64 


10 12-2 




9 


3 11-7 




7} 


6 7-0 




7 


8 111 


6| 


11 28 




H 


3 13-4 




8 


^ 10-2 




7i 


9 0-0 


7 


11 94 




H 


3 15 




84 


6 13 5 




U 


9 50 


7i 


12 00 




n 


4 -7 




84 


7 0-8 




n 


9 10-0 


74 


12 6-7 




10 


4 2-4 




81 


7 4-2 




8 


9 14-9 


n 


12 13 3 




m 


4 4-0 


9 


7 7-5 




8i 


10 3-9 


8 


13 3-9 




104 


4 57 


H 


7 10-8 




84 


10 8-9 


8i 13 10-5 



190 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRO^ 



T. designates tne thickness. B. the breadth. 



r. 


B. 


Weight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


Weight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 1 Weight. 


T. 

in. 


'b.' 

in. 


Weight. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. ozs. 


in. 


lbs. ozs. 


in. lbs. ozs. 


lbs. ozftk 


i 


84 


14 1-2 


f 


94 


19 10-6 


1 


lOi 


26 11-2 


1 


2 


6 10-0 




8| 


14 7-8 




9| 


20 2.9 




11 


27 51 




2i 


7 7-2 




9 


14 14 4 




10 


20 11-2 




Hi 


27 151 




24 


8 4.4 




H 


15 50 




m 


21 3-4 




114 


28 9-0 




2i 


9 1-7 




H 


15 11-7 




104 


21 11-7 




111 


29 3-0 




3 


9 14-7 




9i 


16 23 




lOj 


22 4-0 




12 


29 12-9 




H 


10 12-2 




10 
lOi 


16 8-9 
1-6 15-5 




11 

Hi 


22 12 3 










34 

31 


11 9*4 






23 4-6 


T 


li 


5 11 




12 6-7 




m 


17 6-2 




111 


23 12 8 




2 


5 12 7 




4 


13 3-9 




lOj 


17 12-8 




114 


24 5 1 




21 


6 8-3 




4i 


14 1-2 




11 


18 3-4 




12 


24 13-4 




H 


7 3.9 




44 


14 14-4 




Hi 
Hi 


18 100 

19 0-7 










? 


7 15-5 

8 11.1 




4i 
5 


15 11 7 

16 89 




i 


H 


3 11 6 








Hi 


19 7-3 




i| 


4 5-5 




31 


9 6-7 




H 


17 6-2 




12 


19 13 9 




2 


4 15-4 




34 


10 2.2 




54 


18 3-4 










2i 
24 


5 9-4 

6 3-3 




3| 


10 13-8 

11 9-4 




51 
6 


19 0-7 
19 13-9 


7 


H 


2 9-4 








• 


14 


3 1-6 




21 


6 13-2 




H 


12 5-0 




H 


20 11-2 




li 


3 9-9 




3 


7 7-2 




4 


13 0-6 




64 


21 8-4 




2 


4 2-2 




H 


8 11 




4 


13 12-2 




6i 


22 5.7 




H 


4 10-5 




34 


8 111 




5 


14 78 




7 


23 2-9 




24 


5 2-8 




3i 


9 5-0 




51 


15 34 




7i 


24 0-2 




2| 


5 110 




4 


9 14-9 




54 


15 150 




74 


24 13-4 




3 


6 3.3 




H 


10 8-9 




5i 


16 10-6 




71 


25 10-6 




3i 


6 11 6 




44 


11 2-8 




6^ 


17 6-2 




8 


26 7-9 




34 


7 3-9 




4i 


11 12-7 




61 


18 1-8 




8i 


27 51 




3i 


7 12 2 




5 


12 6 7 




H 


18 13 4 




84 


28 2-4 




4 


8 4-4 




5* 


13 0-6 




H 


19 8-9 




8i 


28 15 6 




4i 


8 12.7 




54 


13 10-6 




7 


20 4-5 




9 


29 12-9 




44 


9 5-0 




51 


14 4-5 




U 


21 01 




H 


30 101 




4i 


9 13-3 




6 


14 14-4 




U 


21 11.7 




94 


31 7-4 




5 


10 5-6 




H 


15 8-4 




n 


22 7-3 




91 


32 4-6 




H 


10 13-8 




64 


16 2-3 




8 


23 2.9 




10 


33 1-9 




54 


11 61 




6| 


16 12-2 




8i 


23 14-5 




lOi 


33 15- 1 




51 


11 144 




7 


17 62 




8| 


24 101 




104 


34 12-4 




6 


12 6-7 




7| 


18 0-1 




8| 


25 5-7 




10| 


35 9.6 




6i 


12 150 




74 


18 10-0 




9 


26 1-3 




11 


36 69 




64 


13 7-2 




7| 


19 40 




91 


26 12 9 




Hi 


37 41 




6| 


13 15-5 




8 


19 13-9 




94 


27 8.5 




114 


38 1-4 




7 


14 7-8 




8i 


20 7-8 




9i 


28 4-0 




Hi 


38 14-6 




3 

7S 


15 0.1 

15 8-4 

16 0-6 




84 
8i 
9 


21 1-8 

21 11-7 

22 5.7 




10 

lOi 

104 


28 15-6 

29 11-2 

30 6-8 




12 


39 11-9 








H 


2i 


8 61 




8 


16 8-9 




H 


22 15 6 




lOi 


31 2-4 




24 


9 50 




H 


17 12 




94 


23 9-5 




11 


31 14 




2i 


10 39 




84 


17 9-5 




9i 


24 3.5 




Hi 


32 9-6 




3 


11 2-8 




8i 


18 1-8 




10 


24 13-4 




114 


33 5-2 




n 


12 1-7 




9 


18 10.0 




lOi 


25 7-3 




Hi 


34 0-8 




13 0-6 


911 


19 23 




104 


26 1-3 




12 34 12.4 1 


_ 


Jl. 


13 15 » 



WElGHt Of FLAT tEON. 



191 









T 


. designates the thickness, B 


the 


breadth. 








T. 


B. Weight. 


T. 


B. 

in. 


w 


eight. 


T. 

in 


B. 


W 


eight. T. B. 


Weight. 


in. 


in. lbs. 


ozs. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in. lbs. 


ozs. in. in. 


]bs. 


OZi 


H 


4 


14 


144 


H 


63 


25 


140 


If 


8|i39 


13-5 


14114 


57 


21 




H 


15 


13-3 




64 


26 


14-5 




9 


40 


15-7 




111 


58 


5.9 




44 


16 


122 




6? 


27 


151 




9i 


42 


20 




12 


59 


9-8 




4i 
5 


17 
18 


111 

100 




7 
7i 


28 


15-6 
0-2 




94 
9i 


43 
44 


42 

6-4 














30 




H' H 


17 


7-8 




H 


19 


8-9 




74 


31 


0-8 




10 


45 


8-6 




34 


18 


13-4 




54 


20 


7-8 




71 


32 


1-3 




lOi 


46 


10-8 




3| 


20 


2-9 




5i 


21 


68 




8 


33 


1-9 




104 


47 


130 




4 


21 


8-4 




6 


22 


5-7 




H 


34 


2-4 




10| 


48 


152 




4i 


22 


]3-9 




6i 


23 


4-6 




84 


35 


30 




11 


50 


1-5 




44 24 


3 5 




64 


24 


3-5 




81 


36 


3-6 




Hi 


51 


3-7 




4||25 


90 




6i 


25 


2-4 




9 


37 


41 




114 


52 


5-9 




5 


26 


145 




7 


26 


13 




H 


38 


4-7 




111 


53 


8 1 




5i 


28 


4-0 




■^i 


27 


0-2 




94 


39 


5-2 




12 


54 


10-3 




54:29 


9-6 




74 
7| 


27 


151 




9| 
10 


40 


5-8 












55 i ^n 


151 

4-6 




28 


14-0 




41 


6-4 


14 


3 


14 


14.4 




'-'4 
6 


32 




8 


29 


|2-9 




lOi 


42 


6-9 




H 


16 


2-3 




H 


33 


10-2 




H 


30 


11-8 




104 


43 


7-5 




H 


17 


6-2 




64 


34 


15-7 




H 


31 


10-7 




10| 


44 


8-0 




3| 


18 


10-0 




61 


36 


5-2 




8i 


32 


9-6 




11 


45 


8-6 




4 


19 


13-9 




7 


37 


10-7 




9 


33 


8-5 




Hi 


46 


9-2 




4i 


21 


1.8 




7i 


39 


0-3 




9i 34 


7-4 




H4 


47 


9-7 




44 


22 


5-7 




74 


40 


5-8 




94 


35 


6-3 




HI 


48 


103 




4| 


23 


9-5 




7| 


41 


11-3 




9| 


36 


5-2 




12 


49 


10-8 




5 


24 


13.4 




8 


43 


0-9 




10 


37 

38 


41 

30 












54 


26 
27 


1-3 
51 




8* 


AA 


€'4 




lOi 


If 


2| 


12 


8-3 






O4 ^-M. 

84 ; 45 


11-9 




104 


39 


1-9 




3 


13 


10-6 




51 


28 


90 




81147 


14 




101 


40 


0-8 




H 


14 


12-8 




6 


29 


12-9 




9 48 


70 




11 


40 


15-7 




34 


15 


150 




6i 31 


0-8 




9i49 


12-5 




Hi 


41 


14-6 




3| 


17 


1-2 




64 32 


4-6 




94 51 


20 




114 


42 


13-5 




4 


18 


3-4 




6| 33 


8-5 




9|i52 


7-6 




111 


43 


12-4 




4i 


19 


5-6 




7 |34 


12-4 




10 |53 


131 




12 


44 


11-4 




44 

4| 
5 


20 
21 
22 


7-8 
101 
12-3 




7i 86 
74 37 
7| 38 


0-2 
4 1 

8-0 




lOi 55 
104 56 
10| 57 


26 

81 

13-7 


u 


24 10 


5-6 










2J 11 


61 




H 


23 


14-5 




8 39 


11-9 




11 59 


32 




3 |12 


67 




54 


25 


0-7 




8i 40 


15-7 




Hi 60 


8.7 




Si lis 


7-2 




5| 


26 


2-9 




84 42 


3-6 




114 61 


14-2 




84 14 


7-8 




6 


27 


51 




81.43 


7-5 




111 63 


38 




3| 15 


8-4 




H 


28 


7-4 




9 I 44 11 4 




12 64 


9-3 




4 


16 
17 


8-9 
9-5 




6h 


29 


9-6 




HU5 

94 47 


15-2 
3 1 










H 




"2 

6S 


30 


11-8 




7l 


34 '20 


4 5 




44 


18 


10-0 




7 


31 


14-0 




9| 48 


7-0 




3|i2I 


11 7 




4i 


19 


10-6 




H 


33 


0-2 




10 49 


10-8 




4 23 


29 




5 


20 


11-2 




74 


34 


2-4 




10ii50 


14-7 




4i 24 


101 




H 


21 


11-7 




71 


35 


4-7 




104! 52 


26 




44 26 


13 




54 j 22 


12-3 




8 


36 


6-9 




101 53 


6-5 




4i 27 


8-5 




51 23 


128 




8i 


37 


91 




11 54 


10-3 




5 j28 


15-6 




6 ,124 


13-4 




84 


38 


11-3 




Hi 55 


14 2 




5i!30 


68 



192 



Weight of flat iron. 









T. 


designates the thickness, B 


the 


breadth. 








T. 


B. 

in. 


Weight. T. 


B. 

in. 


w< 


sight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


W 


sight. 


T. 

in. 


B. W 


sight. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs.;iii. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in. 


lbs. 


oz.s. 


li 


5i 


31 


140 


n 


9 


55 


14-2 


H 


44 


31 


10-7 


H 


S| 65 


3 2 




6| 


33 


5-2 




91 57 


7-0 




41 


33 


6-8 




9 


67 


10 




6 


34 


12-4 


94i58 


15-9 




5 


35 


3-0 




91 


68 


14-9 




H 


36 


3-6 




9Ji60 


8-7 




51 


36 


15-2 




94 


70 


12-7 




64 


37 


10-7 




10 62 


1-6 




54 38 


113 




9| 


72 


10-5 




6| 


39 


1-9 




104 63 


10-4 




5| 40 


7-5 




10 


74 


8-3 




7 


40 


9 1 




104 ! 65 


3-2 




6 ;42 


3-6 




101 


76 


61 




^i 


42 


0-3 




10| 


66 


121 




6i 43 


158 




104 


78 


S-9 




74 


43 


7-5 




11 


68 


4-9 




641 45 


11-9 




10| 


80 


1-7 




n 


44 


14.7 




Hi 


69 


13-8 




61 


47 


8-1 




11 


81 


15-5 




8 


46 


5-8 




114 


71 


6-6 




^ 7 


49 


4-2 




111 


83 


ISS 




8i 


47 


130 




111 1 72 


15-4 




■ 71 


51 


0-4 




114 


85 


111 




84 


49 


4-2 




12 


74 


8-3 




74 


52 


12-5 




111 


87 


8-9 




81 
9 

H 


50 
52 
53 


11-4 
2-6 

9-8 












n 

8 


54 
56 

58 


8-7 
4-8 




12 


89 


6-7 




2 


4 

H 


!26 

*28 


7-9 
2-4 














81 


10 


2| 


4| 


37 


5-8 




H 


55 


1-0 




44 


29 


12-9 




8^ 


59 


131 




5 


39 


5-2 




9| 


56 


8-1 




4| 


31 


7-4 




81 


61 


9-3 




H 


41 


4-7 




10 


57 


15-3 




5 


33 


1-9 




9 


63 


5-4 




54 


43 


42 




lOi 


59 


6-5 




H 


34 


12-4 




H 


65 


1-6 




5| 


45 


S'6 




104 


60 


13-7 


54 


36 


6-9 




94 


66 


137 




6 


47 


81 




10| 


62 


4-9 


5| 


38 


1-4 




91 


68 


9-9 




H 


49 


2-6 




11 


63 


121 


6 


39 


11-9 




10 


70 


60 




64 


51 


20 




114 


65 


3-2 


H 


41 


6-4 




101 


72 


2-2 




6| 


53 


15 




66 


10-4 


64 


43 


0-9 




104 


73 


14-3 




7 


55 


10 




111 


68 


1-6 




6| 


44 


11-4 




10| 


75 


10-5 




'^i 


57 


0-4 




12 


69 


8-8 




7 


46 


5-8 




11 


77 


66 




74 


58 


15-9 












74 


48 


0-3 




IH 


79 


2-8 




n 


60 


15-3 


n 


3| 


23 


4-6 




• 4 


49 


10-8 




114 


80 


150 




8 


62 


148 


4 


24 


13-4 




n 


51 


5-3 




HI 


82 


111 




81 


64 


143 




H 


26 


6-2 


8 


52 


15-8 




12 


84 


7-3 




84 


66 


13-7 




44 
4| 


27 

29 


15.1 

7-9 


fti 


54 
56 


10-3 

4-8 












81 
9 


68 
70 


13*2 






^4 

84 


H 


"44 


33 


8-5 




12-7 




5 


81 


0-8 




8| 


57 


153 




41 


35 


6-3 




91 


72 


121 




5i 


32 


9-6 




9 


59 


90 




5 


37 


41 




94 


74 


116 




54 


34 


2-4 




H 


61 


4-3 




51 


39 


1-9 




9| 


76 


111 




5| 


35 


11-3 




94 


62 


14-8 




54 


40 


15-7 




10 


78 


10-5 




6 


37 


4-6 




9| 


64 


93 




5| 


42 


13-5 




101 


80 


100 




6i 


38 


130 




10 


66 


3-8 




6 


44 


11-4 




104 


82 


9-4 




64 


40 


5-8 




lOi 


67 


14-3 




H 


46 


92 




10| 


84 


8-9 




61 


41 


14-6 




104 


69 


8-8 




64 48 


70 




11 


86 


8-4 




7 


43 


7-5 




10| 


71 


8-3 




6| 50 


4-8 




Hi 


88 


7-8 




7i 


45 


0-3 




11 


72 


13-8 




7 |52 


2-6 




114 


90 


73 




74 


46 


9-2 




lU 


74 


8-3 




71 54 


0-4 




lllj 


92 


6-8 




7| 


48 


20 




114 


76 


2-8 




74 55 


14-2 




12 


94 


6-2 




8 


49 


10-8 




111 


77 


18 3 




7| 57 


120 




















81 


51 


8-7 




12 


79 


7-8 




8 [59 


98 


24 


5 


41 


6-4 




84 

81 


52 
54 


12-5 
5-4 












81 61 


7-6 


51 j 
54! 


43 


7.5 




2* 


41 


29 


145 




84 63 


5-4 


45 


8.6 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 



193 









T 


des 


ignales the thickne 


ss, B 


. the breadth. 








T. 


B. 

in. 


w 


eight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 

in. 


Wei 


gilt. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


Wei 


ght. 


T. 

in. 


B. 

in. 


Wei 


ght. 


«n. 


lbs 


ozs. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


ill. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


H 


5| 


47 


9-7 


21 


7 


60 


13-7 


2i 


84 


77 


Q'Q 


n 


lOi 


97 


9-6 




6 


49 


10-8 




^i 


63 


0-5 




8| 


79 


111 




104 


99 


15-7 




H 


51 


120 




74 


65 


3-2 




9 


81 


15-5 




10| 


102 


5-7 




6i 


53 


131 




n 


67 


6-0 




H 


84 


3-9 




11 


104 


11-8 




n 


55 


14-2 




8 


69 


8-8 




94 


86 


8-4 




Hi 


107 


1-9 




7 


57 


153 




8i 


71 


11-6 




n 


88 


12-8 




114 


109 


8-0 




n 


60 


0-4 




84 


73 


14-3 




10 


91 


1-2 




Hi 


111 


141 




u 


62 


1-6 




8| 


76 


11 




lOA 


93 


5-7 




12 


114 


4-2 




n 

8 


64 


2-7 




9 


78 


3-9 




104 

10| 


95 


10 1 













6Q 


3-8 




9i 


80 


6-7 




97 


14-5 


3 


6 


59 


98 




H 


QS 


4-9 




94 


82 


9-4 




11 


100 


30 




6i 


62 


16 




8i 


70 


6-0 




n 


84 


12-2 




Hi 


102 


7.4 




64 


64 


9-3 




8| 


72 


7-2 




10 


86 


150 




114 


104 


11-8 




6i 


67 


10 




9 


74 


8-3 




lOi 


89 


]-8 




lis 


107 


0-3 




7 


69 


8-8 




H 


76 


9-4 




104 


91 


4-6 




12 


109 


4-7 




7i 


72 


0-5 




9i 


78 


10-5 




10| 


93 


7-3 













74 


74 


8-3 










9| 


80 


11-6 




11 


95 


101 


^ 


51 


54 


12-0 




7| 


77 


00 




10 


82 


12-8 




lU 


97 


12-9 




6 


57 


21 




8 


79 


7-8 




lOi 


84 


13-9 




114 


99 


15-7 




H 


59 


8-2 




8i 


81 


15-5 




104 


86 


150 




111 


102 


2-4 




64 


61 


14-2 




84 


84 


73 




10| 


89 


01 




12 


104 


5-2 




6| 


64 


4-3 




8i 


86 


150 




IX 


91 


12 












7 
7i 


69 


10-4 
0-5 




9 

H 


89 
91 


6-7 
14-5 




Hi 


93 


2-4 


2| 


54 


50 


1 5 








lU 


95 


3-5 




5| 


52 


5-9 




74 


71 


Q'Q 




94 


94 


6-2 




lis 


97 


4-6 




6 


54 


10-3 




n 


73 


12-7 




9| 


96 


140 




12 


99 


5-7 




6i 


56 


14-8 




8 


76 


2-8 




10 


99 


5-7 












64 


59 


3-2 




8i 


78 


8-9 




lOi 


101 


13.5 










^ 


^4 


45 


10-3 




6| 


61 


7-6 




84 


80 


15.0 




104 


104 


5.2 




54 


47 


130 




7 


63 


121 




8| 


83 


5-0 




10| 


106 


13.0 




5| 


49 


15-8 




7i 


QQ 


0-5 




9 


85 


11 1 




11 


109 


4.7 




6 


52 


2-6 




74 


68 


4-9 




H 


88 


1-2 




Hi 


111 


12.4 




6i 


54 


5-4 




71 


70 


9-4 




94 


90 


7-3 




114 


114 


4.2 




64 


56 


8-1 




8 


72 


13-8 




9i 


92 


134 




lis 


116 


11.9 




61 


58 


10-9 




8i 


75 


2-2 




10 


95 


3-5 




12 


119 


3.7 



OBSERVATIONS ON TABLE OF FLAT IRON. 

The weights here given are in pounds, ounces, and decimal parts, avoir- 
dupois 5 and it will be seen, on inspecting" the Table, that the first numbers 
in each page are those which apply to nut iron, and that the breadth in- 
creases by i of an inch. The /ast numbers in each page show the weight 
of a square foot, according to the respective thickness of each bar. Hence 
the weight of any length of a bar of rectangular iron may be ascertained 
gimply, as follows : 

Rule. — Multiply the tabular weight, according to the thickness and breadth, 
by the number of feet in the bar, the product will be tne weight required. 

Example.— ln a bar of iron whose thickness is 2i inches, the breadth GJ 
inches, and the length 18 feet, what is the weight thereof?. 

In the Table for 2i inches thick, and opposite 64 inches, stand 48 lbs. 7 ozs.; 
being the weight of one lineal foot. Multiply this number by 18 feet, and 
we have as follows 5 

43 lbs. 7 ozs. X 13 =: 871 lbs, 14 ozs 



i94 



ELASTICITY OF STEAM. 



ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM. 

lable of the Elastic Force of Steam ^ and corresponding Tempera^ 
ture of the Water with which it is in Contact. 





Elastic 




Volume of 




Elastic 




Volume of 


Pressure in 


force in 


Temper- 


Steam 


Pressure in 


force in 


Temper- 


Steam 


pounds 


Inches 


ature 


compared 


pounds 


Inches 


ature 


compared 


per sq. in. 


of 


Fahren't. 


with Vol. 


per sq. in. 


of 


Fahren't. 


with Vol 




Mercury. 




of Water. 




Mercury. 




of Water' 


14.7 


30.00 


212.0 


1700 


63 


128.52 


299.2 


44 9 


15 


30.60 


212.8 


1669 


64 


130.56 


300.3 


443 


16 


32.64 


216.3 


1573 


65 


132 60 


301.3 


437 


17 


34.68 


21i).6 


1438 


66 


134.64 


302.4 


431 


18 


36.72 


222.7 


1411 


67 


136.68 


303.4 


425 


19 


33.76 


225.6 


1343 


68 


138.72 


304.4 


419 


20 


40.80 


22S.5 


J231 


69 


140.76 


305.4 


414 


21 


4284 


231.2 


1225 


70 


142.80 


306.4 


408 


22 


44.88 


233.8 


1174 


71 


144.84 


307.4 


403 


23 


46.92 


236.3 


1127 


72 


146.38 


308.4 


398 


24 


48.96 


238.7 


lOS-4 


73 


148.92 


309.3 


393 


25 


51JD0 


241.0 


1044 


74 


150.96 


310.3 


338 


26 


53.04 


243.3 


1007 


75 


153 02 


311.2 


38:3 


27 


55.03 


245.5 


973 


76 


155.06 


312.2 


379 


28 


57.12 


247.6 


941 


77 


157.10 


313.1 


374 


29 


59.16 


249.6 


911 


78 


159.14 


314.0 


370 


30 


61.21 


251.6 


883 


79 


161.18 


314.9 


366 


31 


63.24 


253 6 


857 


80 


163.22 


315 8 


362 


32 


65.28 


255.5 


833 


81 


165.26 


310.7 


358 


33 


67.32 


257.3 


SIO 


82 


167.30' 


317.6 


354 


94 


69.36 


259.1 


788 


83 


169.34 


313.4 


350 


35 


71.40 


260 9 


767 


84 


171.33 


319.3 


346 


36 


7344 


262.6 


748 


85 


173 42 


320.1 


342 


37 


75.48 


264.3 


729 


86 


175.46 


321.0 


339 


38 


77.52 


265.9 


712 


87 


177.50 


321.8 


335 


39 


79.56 


267.5 


695 


88 


179.54 


322 6 


332 


40 


81.60 


2C9.1 


679 


89 


131.58 


323.5 


323 


41 


83.64 


270.6 


664 


90 


133.62 


324.3 


325 


42 


85.63 


272.1 


649 


91 


135.66 


325.1 


322 


43 


87.72 


273.6 


635 


92 


137.70 


325.9 


319 


44 


89.76 


275.0 


622 


93 


139.74 


326.7 


316 


45 


91.80 


276.4 


610 


94 


191.78 


327.5 


S13 


46 


93.84 


277.3 


598 


95 


193.82 


328.2 


310 


47 


95.83 


279 2 


536 


96 


195.86 


329.0 


307 


43 


97.92 


230.5 


575 


97 


197.90 


329.8 


304 


49 


99.96 


231.9 


564 


98 


199.92 


330.5 


301 


50 


102.00 


233.2 


554 


99 


201.96 


331.3 


298 


51 


104.04 


234.4 


544 


100 


204.01 


332.0 


295 


52 


106.08 


235,7 


534 


110 


224.40 


339.2 


271 


53 


108.12 


236 9 


525 


120 


244.82 


345.8 


251 


54 


110 16 


253.1 


516 


130 


265.23 


352.1 


233 


55 


] 12.20 


239.3 


503 


140 


235.61 


357.9 


218 


56 


114.21 


290.5 


500 


150 


306.03 


363.4 


205 


57 


116.23 


291.7 


492 


160 


326.42 


363.7 


193 


59 


113.32 


292.9 


434 


170 


346.80 


373.6 


183 


59 


120.36 


294 2 


477 


180 


367.25 


373.4 


174 


60 


122.40 


295.6 


470 


190 


337.61 


382.9 


166 


61 


124.44 


296.9 


463 


200 


408.04 


387.3 


158 


62 


126.43 


293 1 


456 











Water holding impuriiies in solution lends to retard its aitaining the aeriform 
stala, and so impairs the amount of its elastic force at an equal temperature. 

Common water ) boiling point, 212" F. ( elastic force, 30 inches 

Sea water I at 212 "j " 23.05 



Common water ) boiling pointj 216* F 



Sea water. 



at 



216 



M 



32.5 
84.6 



PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 



195 



PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 

When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire, it readily im- 
bibes the heat or fluid principle of which the fire is the immediate cause, 
and sooner or later, according to the intensity of the heat, attams a tempe- 
rature of 2H^ Fahrenheit If at this point of temperature the water be 
not enclosed, but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition wil' take 
place, and steam or vapor will ascend through the water, carrying with it 
the superabundant heat, or that which the water cannot under such circum- 
stances of pressure absorb, to be retained and to indicate a higiier tempera- 
ttire. 

Water., in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly confined to the 
same laws under every degree of pressure ; but as tho pressure is augmented, 
so is the indicated temperature proportionately elevated : hence the various 
densities of steam, and corresponding degrees of elastic force. 

The preceding Table is peculiarly adapted for estimating the power of 
steam engines on the condensing principle, because in such the effocUve 
force of the steam is the difference between the total fome and ihe resisting 
vapour retained in the condenser. The following Table is more adapted 
for estimating the effects of non-condensing engines, as. in such, the atmo- 
spheric p^es^ure is not generally taken into account, engines of this principle 
being supposed to work in a medium; or, the atmospheric pressure on the 
boiler, to cause a gfreater density of steam, is equal to the resisting atmo- 
sphere which the effluent steam has to contend with on leaving the cylinder. 

Table of the Elastic Force of Steam the Pressure of the Atmosphere not 
being included. 



Elastic Force in 


Temperature 
in dee-ees of 


Volume of 
Steam Water 


Cubic in. of 

Wattr in a 

cubic f(>()t of 

Steam. 


Atmosphere. 


lbs. square inch. 


inch, of Mer. 
5.15 


Fahr. 


being 1. 


1.19 


2.5 


220 


1496 


1.14 


1.-22 


3 


6.18 


222 


1453 


1.18 


1.29 


4 


8.24 


225 


1366 


1.25 


1.-36 


5 


10.3 


228 


12S2 


1.33 


1.70 


10 


20.6 


2.40 


1044 


1.64 


2.04 


15 


30.9 


251 


8S3 


1.93 


2.38 


20 


41 2 


2(30 


767 


2.23 


2.72 


25 


515 


263 


673 


2.52 


3.06 


30 


61.8 


275 


609 


2.81 


3.40 


35 


72.1 


2S2 


553 


3.09 


3.74 


40 


82.4 


2-8 


506 


3 38 


4.08 


45 


92.7 


294 


403 


3.C6 


4.42 


50 


103.0 


299 


435 


3.93 


4.76 


55 


113.3 


304 


407 


4.20 


5.10 


GO 


123.0 


309 


3S2 


4.43 



Steam, independent of the heat indicated by an immersed thermometer, 
also contains heat that cnnnot be measured by any instrument at present 
known, and. in consequence of which, is termed latent or'concealrd he;it 5 the 
only positive proof we have of its existence being that of incontestable re- 
sults »r effects produced on various bodies. Thus, if one part by weight of 
steim at 212° be mixed w^ith nine parts of water at 62®, the result is water 
at 178 6° ; therefore, each of the nine pirts of water has received from the 
stoam 11 6-6*' of heat, and conseqiientlv the steam has diffused or given out 
116.6 X 9 = 10494 — 33.4 = 1016° of heat which it must have contained. 
Again, it is ascertained by experiment, that if one gallon of water be trans- 
formed into steam at 212", and that steam allowed to mix with water at 52°, 
the whole will be raised to the boiling point, or 212". From these and other 
experiments, it is ascertained that the latent heat in steam varies from 940'' 



196 



CONSlfMI'flON OF COAL. 



to 1044°, the ratio of accumulation advancing from 212°, as the steam be* 
couies more dense and of greater elastic force j hence the severity of a scald 
by steam to that by boiling water. 

The ru'es formed by experimenters as corresponding with the results of 
their experiments on the elastic force of steam at given temperatures vary, 
but approximate so closely that the following rule, because of being simple, 
may in practice be taken in preference to any other. 

Rule. — To the temperature of the steam in degrees of Fahrenheit, add 
100. divide the sum by 177, and the 6th power of the quotient equals the force 
in inches of mercury. 

Ex. Required the force of steam corresponding to a temperature of 312°. 
312 + 100 ~ 111 = 2.327«= 159 inches of mercury. 

But the Table is much better adapted to practical purposes, as the vari- 
ous results or effects are obtained simply by inspection. 



CONSUMPTION OF COAL. 

TABLE for finding the CONSUMPTION of COAL per Hour in Steamers 
either Paddle or Screw (the same Screw being used throughout,) at 
any Rate of Speed, the Consumption for a particular Rate being known. 
(At a given Amount of Coal, the Engineer may determine the most pru- 
dent Rate of Engine for reaching next coaling Port.) — Engineer's and 
Contractor's Pocket Book, London. 



Speed. 


Consumption 
of Coal. 


3 


.216 


3 1-2 


.343 


4 


.512 


4 1-2 


729 


5 


1.000 


5 1-2 


1.331 


6 


1728 


6 1-2 


2.197 


7 


2 744 


7 1-2 


3.375 


8 


4.096 


8 1-2 


4.910 



Speed. 



9 

9 1-2 
10 

10 1-2 
11 

11 1-2 
12 

12 1-2 
13 

13 1-2 
14 



Consumption 
of Coal. 



5.83 

6 86 

8.00 

9.26 

1065 

12.15 

13 82 

15.61 

17 58 

19.68 

2195 



Explanation. 



The speed for the consump- 
tion of a unit of coal is sup- 
posed here to be 5, which may 
be 5 miles or knots, or 5 times 
any number of miles or knots ; 
then if 5 of such number of 
miles require 1 unit of coal 
per hour, 9 of such units will, 
by the table, require 5 83 units 
of coal, and 3 of them .216 
units of coal. 



It will be evident that this Table is calculated on the principle that the 
horse power varies very nearly as the cube of the speed ; the enormous in- 
crease of consumption at increased velocities is in fact a little greater than 
that shown by the Table. 

The advantages indicated above to be obtained at low velocities are 
evidently independent of those obtained at those velocities by using the 
Bteam expansively. 

EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL AND RESULTS OF COKING. 

Under the authority of an Act of the American Congress, approved Sept. 
11, 1841, an extensive series of experiments was conducted by Prof John- 
son upon the evaporative power of several kinds of coal. The number of 
samples tried was 41, including 9 anthracites from Pennsylvania 5 12 free- 
burning or semi-bituminous coals; 11 bituminous from V^irginia ; 6 foreign 
bituminous coals, viz. 1 from Sydney, Nova Scotia, sent by the Cunard Coal 
Mining Company; 1 of Pictou Coal, sent by the same; I of Scotch; 1 of 
JNewcastle 5 1 of Liverpool 3 and 1 of Pictou, From one to six trials were 



EVAPORATIVE TOWCR, OF COAL. 



197 



made on each sample, the average quantity used per trial being 978 lbs. The 
experiments occupied li^ days, during each of which continuous obser* 
valions were made daring 12 or 14 hours. 

The coals were burnt under a steam boiler, fitted with apparatus for com' 
plete regulation, the supply of water and coals being determined both by 
weis^ht and measure. 

The standard adopted to measure the heating power of each kind of coal 
was the weight of water which a given weight of each evaporated from the 
temperature of 212"^ Fahr. 

The following Table gives the results of five comparisons in each of which 
that coal which ranks the highest is stated as 1000, and the others in deci- 
mal parts of the integer. 





Comparison Comparison' 


Comparison 


Comparison Comparison 






1. 1 2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


o 


Sx; 


5 g.'S 


55 


a 


6 


.S.2 4 


fl 




Kinds of Coal. 


If 


evaporative pow 
1 weights of coal. 

of steam from 21 
d by 1 cubic foot 


o 


k 


1 

1 
1 




o 
1 

•-s 
•a 


1-3 


1 

'a 
S . 


3 
U 

.2 fi 

5S 

o'S 
2 ^ 




1^2 




II' 




9 


« 51 2 


1 


^ 




t^ 




II? 


|.s III 


«o 


f^'-Z 


I 


g|2 §.2 

i 


II 


o5 
a: 5 


ri 


Anthracites : 


: 
i 


j 






Atkinson and ) 
Teinplem;in"s ) 


10 70 1000 566.2 


1.000 


7.96 


.633 


0.99 .505 

j 


5.1 


.725 


52.92 


Beuver Ale a- ) 
dow (No. 5). ) 


9.88 .9-23 550.1 


.932 


6.74 


-748 


2 42 2.07 


6.12 


.060 


56.19 


Bituminous and 






















free burning : 




! 


















Newcastle . 


8 66 


.809 439.6 .776 


5.68 


.887 


0.84 .595 


10.7 


.346 


.50,8t> 


Piclou . . . 


8.48 


.792 417.9 .738 


12.06 


.418 


0.85 .588 


3,7 


1 .000 


49.25 


Liverpool 


7.84 


.733 375.4 .663 


5 04 


1.000 


86 .581 


n 1 


.333 


47.88 


Cannelton, (In) 7.34 


.686 348.8 .616 


5.12 


.984 


0.50 1.000 


64 


.578 


47.65 


Scotcli . . 1 6.95 .619 353.3 .625 


10 10 


.499 


0.96 .521 


5.7 


.649 


51 .05 


Dry pine wood.' 4.69 .436 98 6 .175 


0.307 


16.417 


i 









The same report states some results of coke-burning, from which it ap- 
pears that by burning in uncovered heaps, and only covering up the ignited 
mass when flame ceases to be emitted (as in many of the iron works of 
Great Britain, France, &c.). the loss in weight at Plymouth has been found 
to be 17 per cent.; at Penn-y-darran, 20 per cent ; and at Dowlais f where 
it may be presumed the abundance of coal admits of an uneconomical man- 
agement), 34: per cent. By coking in stacks, or well covered heaps of coal 
from 10 to 15 ft. diameter, as followed in Staffordshire, highly bituminous 
coals lose from 50 to 55 pr. ct. weight, and tho.se of a drier nature from 35 to 40. 

By coking in close ovens, a coal which, in an uncov^ered heap, yields only 
45 to 50 per cent., yields 69 per cent. In the close oven the gain in hulk is 
from 22 to !23 per cent. ; and while highly bituminous coals yield only 40 to 
45 per cent, in open heaps, and actually lose in hulk, they yield in close 
oven^ from 65 to 66 per cent., and ^ain in hulk. ^^ coking in gas retorts, 
the Deane Coal of Cumberland gains nearly 30 per cent, in bulk, and loses 
in weight 25 per cent. Carlisle coal nearly" the same Cannel and Cardiff 
coals gain 30 per cent, in bulk, and lose 36.5 in weight. Bewick's VVallsend 
loses 30, and Russell's Wallsend, 30-7 per cent, by the same process, 

J7» 



198 POWER OF STEAM. 



POWER OF STEAM. 

Mr. Tredgold ^'ives the following- Table, which will show how the power 
of the steam as it issues from the boiler, is distributed. 

IN A NON-CONDENSING ENGINE. 

Lei the pressure on the boiler be 10.000 

Force required to produce motion of the steam iii the cylinder will be 0.0(59 

Loss by cooling in the cylinder and pipes 0.160 

Loss by friciion of ihe piston and waste 2.000 

Force required to expel the steam into the atmosphere 0.069 

Force expended in opening the valves, and friction of the various parts 0.622 

Loss by the steam being cut ofTbefore the end of ihe stroke 1.000 

Amount of deductions 3.920 

Effective pressure 6.080 

IN A CONDENSING ENGINE. 

Let the pressure on the boiler be 10.000 

Force required lo |. ro luce motion of the steam in the cylinder. . . . , . C.C70 

Loss by cooling in the c^ linder and pipes 160 

Loss by friction of the piston and waste 1.250 

Force required to expel the steam through the passages 0.070 

Force required to open and close the valves, raise the injection 

water, and overcome the friction of the axes. 0.630 

I OSS by the steam being cut off before the end of the stroke. . .■ 1.000 

Power required lo work the air pump 0.500 

Amount of deductions 3.680 

Effective pressure 6.320 

If we now suppose a cylinder whose diameter is 24 inches, the area of this 
cylinder and conseauently the area of the piston in square inches, will be, 

S4 ' X .T854 == 452.39 

Lot us also make the supposition that sleam is admitted into the cylinder 
of such power as exerts an effective pressure on the piston of 12 lbs. to the 
square inch ; therefore, 452.39X12 = 5128 68 lbs., the whole force with 
which the piston is pressed. If we now suppose that the length of the stroke 
is five feet, and the eng-ine makes 44 sijigle or 22 double strokes in a minute, 
then the piston will move throug-h a space of 22 X ^ X 2 = 220 feet in a 
minute; the power of the engine being equivalent to a weight of 5428 lbs, 
ra'sed through 220 feet in a minute. 

This is the most certain mcTsure of the power of a steam engine. It is 
usual, tiowever, to estimate the efTcct as equivalent to the power of so many 
horses. This method^ however simple and natural it may appear, is yet, 
from differences of opinion as to the power of a horse, not very accurate; 
and its employment in calculation can only be accounted for on the g"round, 
that when steam engines were first employed to drive machinery, they were 
substituted instead of horses ; and it became thus necessary to estimate what 
size of a steam engine would give a power equal to so many horses. 

There are various opinions as to the power of a horse. According to 
Smeaton, a horse will raise 22,916 lbs. one foot high in a minute. Desagu- 
liers makes the number 27,500; and Watt makes it larger still, that is 33,000. 
There is reason to believe that even this number is too small, and that we 
may add at least 11 000 to it, which gives 44,000 lb§. raised oiie foot higlj 
per mit^ute,— (rne/'- 



RULES AND TABLES 



FOE 



GAUGING, ULLAGING, &c. 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 201 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 

In takinj2: the dimensions of a Cask it must be carefully observed : 
1st, That the bung-hole be in the middle of the cask ; 2d, That the 
bung-stave, and the stave opposite to the bung-hole, are both regular 
and even within; 3d, That the heads ot the Cask are equal, and 
truly circular; if so, the distance between the inside of the chime to 
(he outside of the opposite stave will be the head diameter within 
the Cask, very near. 

Rule. — Take, in inches, the inside diameters of a Cask at the 
Head and the Bung, and also the Length; subtract the head diameter 
from the bung-diameter, and note the difference. 

If the measure of the Cask is taken outside, with callipers, from 
head to head, then a deduction must be made of from 1 to 2 inches 
for the thickness of the heads, according to the size of the Cask. 

1 If the staves of the Cask, between the bun^ and the head, are 
considerably curved, (the shape of a Pipe), multiply the difference 
between the bang and head, by .7. 

2 If the staves be of a medium curve, (the shape of a Molasses 
Hogsliead), multipl}^ the difference by .65. 

3 IJ the staves curve very little, (less than a Molasses Hogs- 
head), multiply the difference by 6. 

4 If the staves are nearly straight, (almost a Cylinder), mul- 
tiply the difference by .55. 

5. Add the product, in each case, to the head-diameter ; the sum 
will be a mean diameter, and thus the Cask is reduced to a cylinder. 

6. Multiply the ineau diameter by itself, and then by the length, 
and multiply if for Wine gallons, by .0034. The difference of dividing 
by 294 (the usual method), and multiplying by .0034 (the most ex- 
peditious method), is less than 500ths of a gallon in 100 gallons. 

EXAMPLE. 

Supposing the Head-Diameter of a Cask to be 24 inches, the Bung- 
Diameter 32 inches, and the Length of Cask 40 inches; What is the 
content in Wine Gallons } 1st variety. 



Bung-Diameter, 32 
Head-Diameter, 24 




brought up 876.16 
Length, 40 


Difference, 8 
Multiplier, .7 








35046.40 
.00.34 


5.6 
Head-Diam., 24 








14018560 
10513920 


multiply 29.6 
by 29.6 








119.157760 


c^rryup Square, 876.16 


Ans, 


119 


galls. 


, 1 pint. 



To obtain the contents of a similar Cask in Ale Gallons, multiply 
35046.40 by .002785, and we get 97.6042, (or 97 gallons 5 pints.) 



202 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 



GAUGING OF CASKS IN IMPERIAL (BRITISH) GALLONS. 
AND ALSO IN UNITED STATES GALLONS. 

Having ascertained the variety o( the Cask, and its interior dimen- 
sions, the following Table will facilitate the calculation of its capacity. 

Table of the Capacities of Casks, whose Bung Diameters and 
Lengths are I or Unity, 



H.ilstVar. 



2d Var. 3d Var. 4th Var. 



.50. 002 1244 
.51 .0021340' 
.52 .00214371 
.53 .002153G 
.54. 0021637' 
.55 .0021740 
.5.) 002 J 845' 
.57 .0021951' 
.53 .0U22i)60| 
.59 .00221701 
.00 .0022233' 
.61 .00223971 
.62 .0;j22513l 
.6? .0022631! 
.61 .0022751 
.65 .0022^73 
.63 .0022997 
.()7 .0023122 
.63 .0023250 
.69 .0023379 
.70 .0023510 
.71 .0023643' 
.72 .0023773 
.73 .0023915 
.74 .0024054 
.75 .0024195 



.0020300 
.0020433 
.0020567 
.0020702 
.0020838 
.0020975 
.0021114 
.0021253 
.0021394 
.0021536 
.0021679 
.0021823 
.0021968 
.0022114 
.0022262 
.0022410 
.0022560 
.0022711 
.0022863 
.0023016 
.0023170 
.0023326 
,0023482 
.002 )640 
.0023799 
.0023959 



.0017704 
.0017847 
.0017993 
.0018141 
.0018293 
.0i)18447 
.0018604 
.0018764 
.0018927 
.0019093 
.0019261 
.0019433 
.0019607 
.0019784 
.0019964 
.0020147 
.0020332 
.0020521 
.0020712 
.0020906 
.0021103 
.0021302 
.0021505 
.0021710 
.0021918 
.0022129 



.0016523 
.0016713 
.0016905 
.0017098 
.0017294 
.0017491 
.0017690 
.0)17891 
.0018094 
.0018299 
.0018506 
.0018715 
.0018925 
.00 19138 
.00 i 9352 
0019568 
.0019786 
.0020006 
.0020228 
.0020452 
0020678 
.0020905 
.0021135 
0021366 
.0021599 
.0021834' 



H. 1st Yar. 2d Var. | 3d Yar. | 4th Yar. 



.76 
.77 
.78 
.79 
.80 
•81 
.82 
.83 
.84 
.85 
.86 
.87 
.88 
.89 
.90 
.91 
.92 
.93 
.94 
.95 
.96 
.97 
.98 
.99 
1.00 
I 



.0024337 
.0024482 
.0024628 
.0024777 
.0024927 
.0025079 
.0025233 
.0025383 
.0025546 
.0025706 
.0025867 
.0026030 
.0026196 
.0026363 
.0026532 
.0026703 
.0026875 
.0027050 
.0027227 
.0027405 
.0027585 
.0027768 
.0027952 
.0028138 
.0028326 . 
I 



.0024120 
0024282 
.0024445 
.0024610 
.0024776 
.0021942 
.0025110 
.0025279 
.0025449 
.0025621 
.0025793 
.0025967 
.0026141 
.0026317 
.0026494 
.0026672 
.0026851 
.0027032 
.0027213 
.0027396 
.0027579 
.0027764 
.0027950 
.0028137 
0023326 



.0022343 
.0022560 
.00227^0' 
.0023002 
.0023227 
.0023455 
.0023686 
.0023920 
.0024156 
.0024396 
.0024638 
.0024883 
.0025131 
.0025381 
.0025635 
.0025891 
.0026150 
.0026412 
.0026677 
.0026945 
.0027215 
.0027489 
.0027765 
.0028044 
.0028326 
i 



.0022071 
.0022310 
.0022551 
.0022794 
.002:3038 
0023285 
.0023533 
.0023783 
.0024035 
.0024'2&<) 
.0024545 
.0024803 
.0025063 
.0025324 
.0025588 
.0025853 
.002 i 120 
.0026389 
.0026660 
.0026933 
.00272(18 
0027484 
,0027763 
0028043 
0028326 



Divide the he^id by the hung diameter, and opposite the quotient 
in the column H, and under its proper variety, is the tabular number 
for unity. Multiply the tabular number by the square of the bung 
diam ter of the given cask, and by its length, the product equals its 
capacity in Imperial gallons. 

Required the number of Gallons in a Cask, (\st variety,) 24 inches 
head diameter, 32 bung diameter, and 40 inches in length ? 
82) 24.0 (75 see Table for tabular No. 

.0024195 tabular No. for unity. 

32 X 32 is 1024 square of bung diam. 



96780 
48390 
24195 

2.4775680 

40 Inches long. 



99.1027200 Imperial Gallons. 
1.2 



Note. — Multiply- 
ing Imperial gallons by 
one & two-tenths (1.2) 
will convert them into 
U. S. gallons ; and U. S. 
gallons multipHed by 
•833 equal Imperial 
gallons. 



1982054400 
991027200 



118.92326400 United States Gallons. 



ULLAGE OF CASKS. 203 

TO ULLAGE, OR FIND THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS 
OF A CASK PARTLY FILLED. 

To find the contents of the occupied part of a lying cask in gallons. 

Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the bung 
diameter, and if the quotient is under .5 deduct from the quotient one- 
fourth of what it is less than .5, and multiply the remainder, by the 
whole capacity of the cask, this product will be the number of gallons 
in the cask. But if the quotient exceeds .5, add one-fourth of that 
excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum, by the whole capacity 
of the cask, this product will be the number of gallons. 

Example i. — Suppose the bung-diameter of a cask, on its bilge, 
is 32 inches, and the whole contents of the cask 118.80 U. S. standard 
gallons; required the ullage of 15 wet inches. 

32) 15.00 (.46875 .5 — .46875 = .03125 -r- 4 = .0078125 .46875 — 
.0078125 =.4609375 X 118.80 = 54.759375 U. S. Gallons. 

Example ii. — Required the ullage of 17 wet inches in a cask of 
the above capacity ? 

32) 17.00 (.53125 — .5 = .03125 -f- 4= .0078125 -f .53125 = .5390625 
X 118.80 = 64.040625 U. S. Gallons. 

Proof — 64-040625 + 54-759375 = 118-80 gallons. 
To find the ullage of a filled part of a standing Cask, in gallons. 
Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the 
length of the cask; then, if the quotient is less than .5, deduct from 
the quotient one-tenth of what it is less than .5 and multiply the re- 
mainder, by the whole capacity of the cask, this product will be the 
number of gallons. But if the quotient exceeds .5, add one-tenth of 
that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum, by the whole capac- 
ity of the cask, this product will be the ullage, or contents in U. S. 
standard gallons. 

Example. — Suppose a cask, 40 inches in length, and the capacity 
118.80 gallons, as above: required the ullage of 21 wet inches ? 
40) 21.000 (.525 — .5 = .025^10= .0025+ .525 =.5275 X 118.80 
= 62.667 U. S. Galli>ns. 



Note. — Formerly the British Wine and Ale Gallon measures were sim- 
ilar to those now used in the United States and British Colonies. 

The following Tables exhibit the comparative value between the United 
States Euid the present British measures. 



IT. S. measure for British (Im.) measure. 

■wine, spirits, &c. galls, qts. pts. gills. 

42 gulls. = i fierce, = 34 3 13 
63 =rl hogsh. = 52 113 

126 = 1 pipe, =104 3 1 3 

252 =1 tun, =209 3 12 



U. S. measure for British (Im.) measure. 

ale and beer. galls, qts. pts. gilla. 

9 galls. = 1 firkin, =^9 1 1 

36 =1 barrel,= 36 2 3 

54 =1 ho^sh.= 54 3 1 1 

108 =1 buu, =109 3 3 



To convert Imperial Gallons into United States Wine Gallons multiply the im- 
perial by 1-2. To convert U. S. Gallons into Imperial multiply the U. Stateg 
Wine gallons by -833. 

51 U. S. Ale Gallons equal 60 Imperial Gallons, therefore to convert one into 
other add or deduct l-60ih. 



204 PLOUGHING, PLANTING. — WEIGHT OF WOOD, &C. 



PLOUGHING. 

Table showing the distance Travelled by a horse in Ploughing an Acre of 
Land; also, the quantity of Land worked in a Day, at the rate of 16 
and 18 miles per day of y hours. 



B'dth of 
Furrow 
slice. 


Spacc^ travel- 1 x'^. . t>, , , B'dth of 

leJin Plough-! ^^^'e^ Day ^ ^"^^^^^' 
ing an Acre, j P^^ ^^^' slice 


Space travel- 
led in Plough- 
ing an Acre. 

Miles. 


Extent Ploughed 
per Day. 


Inches. 


Miles. 18 Miles. 


16 Miles. 


Inches. 


18 Miles. 


16 Miles, 


7 

8 

9 

10 

n 

12 
13 


14 1-2 
12 1-2 
11 

9 9-10 
9 

8 1-4 
7 1-2 


11-4 

11-2 

13-5 

14-5 

2 

2 1-5 

2 1-3 


11-8 
11-4 

1 1-2 
13-5 
13-4 
19-10 

2 1-10 


14 
15 

16 
17 
18 
1% 
20 


7 . 
6 1-2 
6 1-6 
5 3-4 
5 1-2 
5 1-4 
4 9-10 


2i-2 
2 3-4 

2 9-10 

3 1-10 
3 1-4 
3 1-2 
3 1-5 


2 1-4 
225 
2 3-5 
2 3-4 

2 9-10 

3 1-10 
3 1-4 



PLANTING. 

Table showing the number of Plants required for one Acre of Land, from 
one Foot to Twenty-one Feet distance from Plant to Plant. 



Feet No. of 


Feet 


No. of 


Feet 


No. of 


Feet 


No. of) Feet 
Hills. Distance 


No. of 


Distance. Hill . 


Distance 


. Hills. 


Distance. 


Hills. 


Distance. 


Hilla 


1 43,560 


4 


2,722 


7 
74 


889 


10 


436 


17 


151 


14 19,360 


4.^ 


2,151 


775 


104 


361 


18 


135 


2 10,890 


5 


1,742 


8 


680 


12 


302 


20 


•108 


2i 6,969 


54 


1,440 


84 


602 


14 


223 


21 


99 


3 4,840 


6 


1,210 


9 


538 


15 


193 


25 


69 


3J 3,556 


64 


1,031 


94 


482 


16 


171 


30 


48 



WEIGHT OF A CORD OF WOOD. 

Table of the Weight of a Cord of different kinds of Dry Wood, and the 
comparative value per Cord. 



A Cord of Hickory, 
'' Maple, - 



- 44,69 pounds, 

- 2863 '' 



Carbon ■ 



White Birch, - 2369 
" Beech, - 3236 
'' Ash, - - 3450 
Pitch Pine, - - 1904 
White Pine, - 1868 
Lombardy Poplar 1774 
White Oak - - 3R21 
Yellow Oak, - 2919 
Red Oak, - - 3254 



100 
54 
48 
65 
77 
43 
42 
40 
81 
60 
69 



Note. — Nearly one half of the weight of a growing Oak tree consists of 
sap. Ordinary Dry AVood contains about one-fourth of its weight in water. 

CHARCOAL. 
Oak, Maple, Beech, and Chestnut make the best quality. Be- 
tween 15 and 17 per cent, of coal can be obtained when the ^vood is 
properly burned. A bushel of coal from hard wood weighs between 
29 and 31 lbs., and from from pine between 28 and 30 lbs. . 



Y« Bookworme 




Y^ Olde Colonial Time 



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when it becomes the channel of the infinite spirit of God, and that so-called 
mind cures are not brought about wholly by the pov>rer of the mind over the 
body, or by the influence of one mind over another. 

Religious enthusiasm and scientific medicine abound in cases of extraordi- 
nary cures of diseases effected by what, for the sake of convenience, is gener- 
ally called ''faith." 

It will not do, says the British Medical Journal, for pathologists and psy- 
chologists to treat these *' modern miracles " so cavalierly. 

In them are exhibited, in a more or less legitimate manner, the results of the 
action of the mind upon the bodily functions and particles. 

Hysteria is curable by these phenomena, since hysteria, after all, is only an 
unhealthy mastery of the body over the mind, and is cured by this or any other 
stimulus to the imagination. "Therefore," says the editor of the above jour- 
nal, " there is no reason to doubt that faith-healing, so called, may have 
more positive results than we have been accustomed to allow." 

TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND ELMS AND OTHER TREES. 

Reproduced by Photogravure from photographs by Henry Brooks, with an 
Introduction, and with Notes by L. L. Dame. 4to. [In press. 

Publishers, r%jr^r^ t^^-v 

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Important New Books. 



THOMAS CARLYLE'S COUNSELS TO A LITERARY ASPI- 
RANT (a Hitherto Unpublished Letter of 1842), and What Came of 
Them. With a brief estimate of the man. By James Hutchinson Stir- 
ling, LL. D. i2mo, boards, 50 cents. 

Gives a side of the rugged old Scotchman which will be new to most readers. 
It shows that he was not always gruff and bearish, and that he could at times 
think of somebody besides himself. The letter is 07ie lohich every young tnan 
nvJio has a leani?ig' towards literary work will read and ponder over. 

SOCIAL LIFE AND LITERATURE FIFTY YEARS AGO. 

i6mo, cloth, white paper labels, gilt top. $1.00. 
By a well-known litterateur. It will take a high place among the literature 
treating of the period. A quaint and delightful book, exquisitely printed in the 
Pickering style. 

CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES. By Matthew 

Arnold. And Other Essays concerning America. i6mo, unique paper 

boards. 75 cents. Cloth, uncut, $1.25. TJie cloth bi7idi7ig viatches tJie 

uniforvi edition of his collected works. 

Comprises the critical essays, which created so much discussion, namely, 

** General Grant, an Estimate." "A Word about America," "A Word more 

about America," and " Civilization in the United States." 

*^* This collection gathers in the great critic's last contribution? to literature. 



LEGENDS OF THE RHINE. From the German of Pt«%r. "Bernard. 
Translated by Fr. Arnold. Finely Illustrated. Small 4to. Cloth. 
An admirable collection of the popular historical traditions of tne Rhine, told 
with taste and picturesque simplicity. \_1 71 press. 

A SELECTION FROM THE POEMS OF PUSHKIN. 

Translated, with Critical Notes and a Bibliography. By Ivan Panin. 
author of "Thoughts." Foolscap 8vo. Unique binding. $2.00. 

The first published translation by the brilliant young Russian, Ivan Panin, 
whose lectures in Boston on the literature of Russia, during the autumn of last 
^ ear, attracted crowded houses. 

WIT, WISDOM, AND PATHOS, from the prose of Heinrich Heine, 
with a few pieces from the " Book of Songs," Selected and translated by 
J. Snodgrass. Seco7td editio7t, thoroughly revised, Cr. 8vo, 338 pp. 
Cloth, $2. 00 

"A treasure of almost priceless thought and criticism." — CenUmporary 
Review. 

PublisJters 

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nnportant New BooTis. 



Travesties, Parodies, and Jeux d'Esprit. 

THE IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS OF HIS EXCELLENCY 
AND DAN. By C. W. Taylor. With 40 full-page silhouette illustra- 
tions by F. H. Blair. 90 pp. i6mo Paper. 25 cents. 

*' It is fun for the masses, wholly irrespective of political parties, — such good- 
natured fun that even those that it satirizes might well laugh. , . Probably the 
most humorous skit ever produced/' 

THE LITTLE TIN-GODS-ON-WHEELS ; OR, SOCIETY IN 

OUR MODERN ATHENS. A Trilogy, after the manner of the 
Greek. By Robert Grant. Illustrated by F. G. Attwood. Tenth edi- 
tion. Pamphlet. Small 4to. 50 cents. 

Divided into Three Parts: The Wall Flowers; the Little Tin-Gods-on- 
Wheels ; The Chaperons. A broad burlesque of Boston society scenes. 

ROLLO'S JOURNEY TO CAMBRIDGE. A Tale of the Adventures 
of the Historic Holiday Family at Harvard under the New Regime. Wit^: 
twenty-six illustrations, full-page frontispiece, and an illuminated cover oi 
striking gorgeousness. By Francis G. Attwood. i vol. imperial 8vo, 
Limp. London toy- book style. Third and enlarged edition. 75 cents. 

"All will certainly relish the delicious satire in both text and illustrations." — 
Boston Traveller. 
"A brilliant and witty piece of fun." — Chicago Tribune. 

EVERY MAN HIS OWN POET; OR, THE INSPIRED 
SINGER'S RECIPE BOOK. By W. H. Mallock, author of ''New 
Republic," etc. Eleventh Editio?i. i6mo. 25 cents. 

A most enjoyable piece of satire, witty, clever, and refined. In society and 
literary circles its success, both here and abroad, has been immense. 

TWO COMEDIES: AN ILL WIND; AN ABJECT APOL- 
OGY. By F. Donaldson, Jr. Fcap. 8vo. Paper, elegant. 50 cents. 

These comedies belong to the same class of literature as do the lightest of 
Austin Dobson's lyrics and Andrew Lang's least serious essays, and their form 
is admirably suited to the depicting of the foibles and rather weak passions of 
that indefinite caste, American society. They are evidently modelled on the 
French vaudeville, and their characters are clever people, who say bright things. 
Why should we not choose the people we describe from the clever minority, 
instead of making them, as is sometimes done, unnecessarily dull, although 
perhaps more true to nature at large ? Mr. Donaldson has done so, and much 
of the dialogue in these comedies is clever as well as amusing. 

Publishers y t^^^^t-^^-it 

Cutties and Hurd, Booksellers, BOSTON. 

^ ■*■ Library A^eftts, 



Important New Books, 



BOOKS FOR THE SEEKER AND FOR THE SORROWFUL, 

LIFE'S PROBLEMS. HERE AND HEREAFTER. An autobio- 
graphy. By George Truesdelle Flanders. i6mo. Cloth, gilt top. 
$1.25. Second Edition revised. 

This book, which is not sectarian, has been received with marked favor \r; 
critics and by reader, both in this country and in England. This is not sur- 
prising, for it treats the most difficult problems of life, here and hereafter, in a 
bold and fearless manner, and at the same time in a candid and tender s^-irit, 
and has supplanted unbelief, doubt, and perplexity, with faith, trust, and hope. 

^^ It is a real spirit7ial biography —an ijuier life honestly revealed. . . Such 
a cheerful spirit a7iiniates the book, a spirit so full of spiritual bicoyancy, in har- 
viofiy ivith the gospel of love ^ seeking the good ajid the beantifd — thi.s in itself 
coni7nunicates kope^ cotirage, ajidfaith^ — Boston Post. 

WHENCE? WHAT? WHERE? A ViEW OF TKE ORIGIN, 

NATURE, AND DESTINY OF MAN. By James R. Nichols. 
With portrait of the author. lamo. Cloth, gilt top. $1.25. Eleventh 
editioHy revised. 

** I consider the late fames R. Nichols, the ivell-known cJiemisi, one of th^ 
cjolest and most scientific investigators in the field of psychical phenometia^ andy 
at the same time, 07ie of the most honest. If the world had more ea-rnest thifik- 
ers of the same kifid to co-operate ivith him, the ivorld would find out soine- 
thing of vahie. — foseph Cook. 

■ ' No one can take up the book witJiout feeli^tg the inclination to read further ^ 
a7id to ponder on the all- important subjects which it presejits. Though it is 7tot 
a religions book i7i the accepted sense of the luord, it is a book ivhich calls for the 
exercise of the religions 7iature, a7id ivhich i7i diffusitig 7nany se7isibie ideas 
wdl be good.'''' — Philadelphia Press. 

THE MYSTERY OF PAIN : A BOOK ADDRESSED TO THE 

SORROWFU L. By James H in ton, M. D. With an introduction by 
James R. Nichols, author of "Whence? What? Where?" i6mo. 
Cloth, gilt top. $1.00. 

This book was published in England twenty years ago, and a small edition 
was sent to this country, which readily found purchasers. The book, at the 
time it appeared in England, had a limited sale ; b"t since the author's death a 
new interest has arisen, and the work has been widely circulated and read. — A 
book which has comforted many a troubled soul, and awakened the emotion of 
love in distressed and doubting hearis. — Many good and uplifting thoughts in 
the book, — thoughts which will not readily pass from the memory. The prob- 
lem of pain is indeed dark and not easily solved; and if one is able to point 
out rifts in the cloud, the world of sufferers will w^elcome the light as rays 
breaking through from the regions of rest and bliss. — From the Introdiiction. 

** No word of Praise can add a7iything to the value of this little work, which 
has 7tow take7i its place as 07ie of the classics of religious literature. 7 he ten- 
der, revere7tt, a7td searchi7ig spirit of the author has come as a great consolation 
and hell> to 7na?iy persons.'''' — New York Critic, 

Publishers 
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Important New Books. 



Lives of Five Distinguished Americans. The Only 
Biographies Extant. 

MATTHEW CALBRAITH PERRY. A typical American Naval Officer. 
By William Elliot Griffis, author of '* The Mikado's Empire," and 
" Corea : the Hermit Nation." Cr. 8vo, 459 pages, gilt top, with two por- 
traits and seven illustrations. $2.00. 
" Sure of favorable reception, and a permanent place in public and private 
libraries." — N. V. Evening Post. 

" Of unusual value to every student of American history." — Nat. Baptist. 
*' One of the best books of the year." — Ftiblic Ot>inio7i. 

" His biography will be one of the naval classics." — Army and Navy 
Journal. 

'* Has done his work right well." — CJiicago Evening Journal. 
'' Highly entertaining and instructive." — Universalist Quarterly. 

THADDEUS STEVENS, AMERICAN STATESMAN, AND 
FOUNDER OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY. A Memoir by 

E. B. Callendar. With portrait. Cr. 8vo. Cloth, gilt top. ^^1.50. 
A biography of one of the most interesting characters in the whole range of 
American politics, whose work must be understood thoroughly to gain accurate 
knowledge of the secret forces operating during his times, 1792 to 1869. 

JOHN HOWARD PAYNE. A Biography of the author of "Home, 
Sweet Home," by Chas. H. Brainard. With four portraits from minia- 
tures and other sources, fac-simile of manuscript, " Home, Sweet Home," 
and photographic illustrations of his tomb at Washington, etc., etc. 8vo. 
Cloth elegant, gilt top, in box. $3.00. 
Apart from the remembrance and regard in which the author of " Home, 
Sweet Home " is held by the world, this biography will possess additional inte- 
rest from the fact that it is written under the direct editorshin of W. W. Cor- 
coran, the late eminent philanthropist, who provided the funds for the removal 
of the poet's body from Africa to Washington. 

THE LIFE OF ADMIRAL SIR ISAAC COFFIN, BARONET; 

HIS ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ANCESTORS. By Thomas 

C. Amory. With portrait. Large 8vo. $1.25. 
The name of Coffin is so widely spread over our continent, so many thous- 
ands of men and women of other patronymics take pride in their descent from 
Tristram, its first American patriarch, that what concerns them all, any consid- 
erable branch or distinguished individual of the race, seems rather history than 
biography. 

THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF COMMODORE CHARLES 

MORRIS. With heliotype portrait ajter Ary Schejjer. i vol. 8vo. 
Ill pages, ^i.oo. 
A valuable addition to the literature of American history ; a biography of 
one who, in the words of Admiral Farragut, was ''America's grandest seaman." 

Cuttles and Hard, "" Booksellers, BOSTON. 

** Library Agents^ 



Important New Books. 



RALPH WALDO EMERSON, Philosopher and Seer. An Estimate 

of his Character and Genius. By A. Bronsox Alcott. 

With portraits and other illnstratioiis. Foolscap octavo. Gilt top. $1.50. 

One Jnuidred copies ivill be printed 07i larger and finer paper, Svo, suitable 

for the insertion of extra illnstratiojis. Bound in Roxburgh, gilt top* Price 

to Subscribers, $3.00. 

A book about Emerson, written by the one man who stood nearest to him of 
all men. It is an original and vital contribution to Emersonia ; like a portrait 
of one of the old masters painted by his own brush. \In Press, 

HERMAN GRIMM'S WORKS. 

THE LIFE OF RAPHAEL as shown in his principal works. From the 
German of Herman Grimm, author of **The Life of Michael Angelo," 
etc. With frontispiece, after Brann, of the recently discovered portrait, 
outlined by Raphael in chalk. Cr. 8vo. Cloth. ^2.00. - 

ESSAYS ON LITERATU RE. From the German of Herman Grimm, 
uniform with** The Life of Raphael." New and eidarged edition, care^ 
fully corrected. Cr. 8vo. Cloth. $2.00. 

BY JAMES H, STARK, 

ANTIQUE VIEWS OF YE TOWNE OF BOSTON. By James H. 
Stark, Assisted by Dr. Samuel A. Green, Ex-Mayor of Boston, Libra- 
rian of the Massachusetts Historical Society ; John Ward Dean, Libra- 
rian of the New England Historic Genealogical Society ; and Judge 
Mellen Chamberlain, of the Public Library. An extejisive and exhaust- 
ive work in jy8 pages. Large quarto. Illustrated ivith nearly 200 fidl 
size reproductio7is of all knozvn rare maps, old prints, etc. i vol* 4to, 
Cloth. $6.00. 

BERMUDA GUIDE. A description of ever>'thing on or about the Ber- 
muda Islands, concerning which the visitor or resident may desire informa- 
tion, including its history, inhabitants, climate, agriculture, geology, 
government, military and naval establishments. By James H. Stark. 
With Maps, Engravings and 16 photo-prints, i vol. i2mo, cloth, 
157 pp. $2.00. 

PAUL REVERE: Historical and Legendaiy. By Elbridge H. Goss. 
With reproductions of many of Revere's engravings, etc. \_In press, 

A DIRECTORY OF THE CHARITABLE AND BENEFICENT 
ORGANIZATIONS OF BOSTON, ETC. Prepared for the Asso. 
ciated Charities. 1 vol., 196 pp. i6mo. Cloth, $1.00. 

Publishers, 
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Library Agents* 



Important Nezv Books. 



Works ey Cally Pratt McLean. 

CAPE COD FOLKS. A novel. Twenty-third edition. Illustrated. i2mo. 
Cloth. ;^i.25. 

TOWHEAD: THE STORY OF A GIRL. Fifth thousand, i^mo. 

Cloth. $1.25. 

SOME OTHER FOLKS. A Book in Four Stories. i2mo. Cloth. $i.2S' 

These books are so well known that further comment seems superfluous. 
Suffice it to say that the entire press of the country has unanimously spoken of 
them in terms of high praise, dwelling not only on their delicious hum.or, their 
literary workmanship, their genuine pathos, and their real power and eloquen< e, 
but what has betn described as their deep, true hunian7iess, and the inimitable 
manner in which the mirror is held up to nature that all may see reflected 
therein some familiar trait, some description or character which is at once recog- 
nized. 

MISS M:L BAN'S NEW BOOK. 

Since the production oF Miss McLean's first effort " Cape Cod Folks," she 
has steadily advanced in intellectual development ; the same genius is at work 
in a larger and more artistic manner, until she has at length produced vn hat 
must be truly considered as her masterpiece, and which we have the pleasure to 
announce for immediate publication. 

LASTCHANCE JUNCTION; FAR, FAR WEST. A novel. By 
Sally Pratt McLean, i vol. i2mo Cloth. $1.25. 

The author in this book sees further and clearer than she saw in her earlier 
works ; she has stepped, as it were, out of the limits of her former thought and 
action into ihe centre of the arena of the world's full, rich life; from the indi- 
vidual characteristic she has passed to the larger weaknesses and virtues of 
humanity, v ith their inevitable results of tragedy and nobiliiy. Much as 
has been said respecting the pathos of her former books, one feels, as t' a 
last page ( f " La^tcharce Junction " has been turned, that they were but sma 1 
as c nijareJ wiih this, so terribly earnest is it, so true in its delineaLicn of L e, 
with all its elements of tragedy and comedy ; and life, moreover, in that region 
of our country where Nature still reigns supreme, and where humanity, uncon- 
trolled I y the conventionalities of more civilized communities, stands shari) v 
drawn in the strong shadows of villainy and misery, and in the h;gh lights of 
uncultured, strong nobility and gentleness. There are no half-tones. 

Terse, incisive descriptions of men and scenery, drawn with so vivid a fen 
that one can see the characters and their setting, delicious bits of humor, 
passages full of infinite pa.hos, make this book absolutely hold the reader from 
the ti.le to the last word, and as, when finished, one sighs for the pity of it, the 
feeling rises that such a work has not been written in vain, and will have its 
place among those which tend to elevate our race. 

Cuttles and Hurd, Booksellers, BOSTON. 

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Important New Boohs. 



HOW TO WRITE THE HISTORY OF A FAMILY. By W. P. 

W. Phillimore, M. A., B. C. L. i vol. Cr. 8vo. Tastefully printed in 
antique style y handsomely bound. $2.00. 

Unassuming, practical, essentially useful, Mr. Phillimore's book should be in 
the hands of every one who aspires to search for his ancestors and to learn his 
family history. — A thencetan. 

This is the best compendious genealogist's guide that has yet been published, 
and Mr. Phillimore deserves the thanks and appreciation of all lovers of family 
history. — Reliquary. 

Notice. — Large Paper Edition. A few copies, on hand-made paper, wide mar- 
gins, bound in half morocco, may be obtained, price $6.50 7iet. 

THE KINSHIP OF MEN: An Argument from Pedigrees ; or, Genealogy 
Viewed as a Science. By Henry Kendall. Gr. 8vo. Cloth, $2.00. 

The old pedigree-hunting was a sign of pride and pretension ; the modern is 
simply dictated by the desire to know whatever can be known. The one 
advanced itself by the methods of immoral advocacy ; the other proceeds by 
those of scientific research. — Spectator (London). 

RECORDS AND RECORD SEARCHING. A Guide to the Genealo- 
gist and Topographer. By Walter Rye. 8vo, cloth. Price ^2.50. 
This book places in the hands of the Antiquary and Genealogist, and others 
interested in kindred studies, a comprehensive guide to the enormous mass of 
material which is available in his researches, showing what it consists of, and 
where it can be found. 

ANCESTRAL TABLETS- A Collections of Diagrams for Pedigrees, so 
arranged that Eight Generations of the Ancestors of any Person may be 
recorded in a connected and simple form. By William H. Whitmore, 
A.M. SEVENTH EDITION. On heavy parchment paper, large 4to, 
tastefully and strongly bound, Roxburgh style. Price $2.00. 

" No one with the least bent for genealogical research ever examined this in- 
geniously compact substitute for the ' family tree ' without longing to own it. 
It provides for the recording of eight lineal generations, and is a perpetual 
incentive to the pursuit of one's ancestry." — Nation. 

THE ELEMENTS OF HERALDRY. A practical manual, showing 
what heraldry is, where it comes from, and to what extent it is applicable to 
American usage ; to which is added a Glossary in English, French and 
Latin of the forms employed. Profusely Illustrated. By W. H. 
Whitmore, author of " Ancestral Tablets," etc. \_In press. 

Publishers, 
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^ Library Agents^ 



Important Neiv Boohs. 



THE FOUR GOSPELS. Translated into Modern English from the Au- 
thorized and Revised Versions. By Ernest Bilton. Cloth, ^i.oo. 
A cheap editioji of a new trarislation of the Gospels^ havhig a great r7cn of 
popularity in the religions circles of Great Britain, 
The author has taken the authorised version as it stands, avaiHng him- 
self of many corrections suggested by the revised version, and has given the 
apparent meaning of the text in the plainest possible language, the whole 
object being the simplification of the narratives of the Evangelists. It is not 
expected that this rendering will supersede the accepted version. The author 
evidently feels that he is not without hope that it may lead to the serious con- 
sideration, in proper quarters, of the advisability of providing the people 
with an authorised translation of the Scriptures into the "vulgar tongue." 
not of the sixteenth but of the 7ii7ieteenth centur3^ 

THE SKETCHES OF THE CLANS OF SCOTLAND, with twenty- 
two full-page colored plates of Tartans. By Clansmen J. M. P. - F. W. S. 
Large 8vo. Cloth, $2.00. 
The object of this treatise is to give a concise account of the origin, seat, and 
characteristics of the Scottish clans, together with a representation of the dis- 
tinguishing tartan worn by each. The illustrations are fine specimens of color 
ivork, all executed in Scotland. 

THE GREEN HAND; or, the Adventures of a Naval Lieutenant. A Sea 
Story. By George Cupples. With Portrait of the Author and other 
Illustrations, i vol. lamo. Cloth. $2.00. 
A new library edition of this fascinating sea classic. \l7i press. 

ALL MATTER TENDS TO ROTATION, OR THE ORIGIN 
OF ENERGY. A New Hypothesis which throws Light upon all the 
Phenomena of Nature. Electricity, Magnetism, Gravitation, Light, 
Heat, and Chemical Action explained upon Mechanical Principles and 
traced to a Single Source. By Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, M. A. 
Vol. I. Origin ot Energy: Electrostatics and Magnetism. Contaisning 100 
Illustrations, includine Fine Steel Portraits of Faraday and Maxwell. 
Handsomely bound m cloth. 8vo, 340 pp. Price, $3.00. Net, 

In this volume the author has utilized the modem conception of lines of 
force originated by Faraday, and afterwards developed mathematically by 
Prof. J. Clerk Maxwell, and he has reached an explanation of electrical and 
magnetic phenomena which has been expected by physicists on both conti- 
nents. It may have a greater influence upon the scientific world than either 
Newton's "Principia" or Darwin's ** Origin of Species," because it places 
natural science upon its only true basis — Pure Mechanics. 

P%tblishers __ 

Cutties and Hurd, Booksellers, BOSTON. 

* * L ior(¥ry A z^ntSf 






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